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SIMPSON
I M P R I N T IN HUMANITIES
The humanities endowment
by Sharon Hanley Simpson and
Barclay Simpson honors
MURIEL CARTER HANLEY
whose intellect and sensitivity
have enriched the many lives
that she has touched.
Beautiful Monsters
CALIFORNIA STUDIES IN 2 0 T H - C E N T U R Y MUSIC
Richard Taruskin, General Editor

i. Revealing Masks: Exotic Influences and Ritualized Performance in

Modernist Music Theater, by W. Anthony Sheppard
z. Russian Opera and the Symbolist Movement, by Simon Morrison
3. German Modernism: Music and the Arts, by Walter Frisch
4. New Music, New Allies: American Experimental Music in West Germany
from the Zero Hour to Reunification, by Amy Beal
5. Bartok, Hungary, and the Renewal of Tradition: Case Studies in the
Intersection of Modernity and Nationality, by David E. Schneider
6. Classic Chic: Music, Fashion, and Modernism, by Mary E. Davis
7. Music Divided: Bartok's Legacy in Cold War Culture, by Danielle
Fosler-Lussier
8. Jewish Identities: Nationalism, Racism, and Utopianism in
Twentieth-Century Art Music, by Klara Moricz
9. Brecht at the Opera, by Joy H. Calico
10. Beautiful Monsters: Imagining the Classic in Musical Media,
by Michael Long
Beautiful Monsters
Imagining the Classic in Musical Media

Michael Long

CP
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PRESS
Berkeley • Los Angeles • London
University of California Press, one of the most distin-
guished university presses in the United States, enriches
lives around the world by advancing scholarship in the hu-
manities, social sciences, and natural sciences. Its activities
are supported by the UC Press Foundation and by philan-
thropic contributions from individuals and institutions.
For more information, visit www.ucpress.edu.

University of California Press

Berkeley and Los Angeles, California

University of California Press, Ltd.

London, England

© 2008 by The Regents of the University of California

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Long, Michael, 1 9 5 2 -
Beautiful monsters : imagining the classic in musi-
cal media / Michael Long.
p. cm.—(California studies in 20th-century
music ; 10)
Includes bibliographical references (p. ) and
index.
ISBN 978-0-520-22897-9 (cloth : alk. paper)—
ISBN 978-0-520-25720-7 (pbk. : alk. paper)
1 . Popular music and art music. 2. Popular
music—History and criticism. 3. Motion picture
music—History and criticism. I. Title.

ML3470.L64 2008

781.6'8—dc22 2007051009

Manufactured in the United States of America

17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 09 08
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
This book is printed on Natures Book, which contains
3 0 % post-consumer waste and meets the minimum re-
quirements of ANSI/NISO Z 3 9 . 4 8 - 1 9 9 2 (R 1997) (Per-
manence of Paper).
For Sheldon, Bob, Stephen, and. Maia
Contents

Acknowledgments ix

Introduction i

PART ONE • Registering the Classic

1 . The Expressive Vernacular n

2. Making Overtures 44
3. Yiddishkeit and the Musical Ethics of Cinema 73

PART TWO • Envisioning the Classic

4. Hearing Monsters 109

5. The Fantastic, the Picturesque, and the Dimensions
of Nostalgia 121
6. Listening in Dark Places 157
7. Concertos, Symphonies, Rhapsodies (and an Opera) 196

Conclusion: Sitting Down with Mnemosyne 233

Notes 241

Selected Bibliography 287

Index 299
Acknowledgments

In making my way through the wide range of topics and repertory ad-
dressed in this book I profited from conversations—sometimes casual or
merely in passing—with colleagues, friends, and students within and out-
side the discipline of musicology. For their helpful suggestions concern-
ing relevant bibliography, repertory, and conceptual details, I would like
to thank Karol Berger, Daniel Chiarilli, James Currie, Lawrence Earp, Kai
Fikentscher, Christopher Gibbs, Lorena Guillen, Martha Hyde, Michael
Martin, Peter Schmelz, Charles Smith, Peter Otto, and Albin Zak. Caryl
Emerson, Christopher J . Long, Harold Rosenbaum, and Jayson Rodovsky
each shared specific expertise on matters of language, linguistics, or Yid-
dish song. M y thanks also to William Rosar for his generosity as an in-
terlocutor and as a repository of details related to the early years of sound
cinema. Some of the material in this book was developed while teaching
seminars at the University at Buffalo and as a visitor at the Eastman
School of Music, and my work has profited from discussions with grad-
uate students in both those contexts. I am grateful to the music librarians
at both institutions for their assistance and cooperation, especially John
Bewley, Rick MacRae, Nancy Nuzzo, and Gerry Szymanski.
For the provision of illustrative material, I am grateful to the Bir-
mingham Museum and Art Gallery; also to Arnold Berlin (www.stafford
shire.org). Special thanks to Trevor C. Bjorklund who, during a very
busy phase in his own life, volunteered to prepare the musical examples,
a task he carried out with expertise, efficiency, and good humor.

ix
X Acknowledgments

I thank the anonymous readers for the University of California Press

for their many helpful comments. Special thanks to Richard Taruskin,
the most formidable reader I know, for his detailed review of the manu-
script and for the enlivening conversations that followed. His insights
and suggestions were invaluable in making this book significantly better
than it would have been otherwise. I am further indebted to him and to
Elaine Sisman for their many years of service as colleagues, friends, and
cheerleaders. My work has benefited from their unwavering encourage-
ment and especially from the models provided by their distinguished and
inspiring scholarship.
For their hard work, congeniality, and expertise I thank also my pro-
duction editor at the University of California Press, Jacqueline Volin, and
copy editor Julie Brand. I bear full responsibility for any stylistic or con-
ceptual infelicities that remain. I am especially grateful to Mary Francis,
who has shepherded this project since its inception with wisdom, gen-
erosity, and patience.
Finally, I have to thank Robert W. Marion, MD, for having unknow-
ingly (to either of us) planted the seeds of this study in our childhood by
a remark about Procol Harum's "A Whiter Shade of Pale" that I have al-
ways remembered. Suggesting with breathless enthusiasm (and thinly
veiled impatience), "Michael, even you will like this song," he may have
initiated my contemplation of those processes of appreciation and com-
munication explored in the pages that follow.
Introduction

Prompted by the "crisis" of devaluation and delegitimation of (mainly) Eu-

ropean literate art music over the course of the previous generation, Julian
Johnson fired a question into the apparent cultural void with his 200Z
monograph Who Needs Classical Music?1 If there is an answer implicit in
the following study, it is that classical music is and will likely continue to
be fundamental to everyone who has confronted or been confronted by it,
even or perhaps especially when it has taken the form of a reconfigured
fragment. Since the crisis to which Johnson's book responds appears to be
bound at least as much to institutions as to sounds, and is linked more to
received modes of framing, evaluation, and analysis than to other varieties
of musical perception, mourning the supposed decline of the classics
strikes me as maudlin. For Johnson, classical music (including twentieth-
century modernism) constitutes a language—a word that turns up with
some regularity in his text—that differs fundamentally from the plurality
of musical languages he grudgingly welcomes but ultimately dismisses. His
insistent, if understated, taxonomy of language is built upon a discursive
foundation he has grounded in the elements of music most germane to his
evaluative arguments, elements such as musical form and harmony. (Thus
his enthusiasm for the aesthetically bracing challenges of musical disso-
nance.) Focusing on music's nuts and bolts, and specifically those easily
demonstrated and enumerated by reference to printed musical scores
(however much all of this hardware may transport us when presented in
performance), Johnson argues for the discouraging "simplicity" of a great

i
2 Introduction

deal of twentieth-century popular song, along with other types of main-

stream music.2
I agree (as most everyone will) that it is not easy to talk about what
music does without recourse to a vocabulary linked to our understand-
ing of language, of how we use it and why we use it at all. In the pages
that follow I will refer at times to the academic sciences of language, but
any borrowed concepts are not rallied to support the promulgation of
structural models or analytical systems. They are selected instead for
their relevance to concretizing the human need for particular modes of
expression and are dependent upon nothing more technical than a kind
of situational linguistics.
Johnson's position regarding the special qualities that inhere in the lit-
erate art-music tradition will be clear to anyone reading his work; his ar-
guments have little to do with the substance of mine, and their usefulness
as a foil will not extend much beyond this introduction. But in situating
the music I treat in the pages that follow, one of Johnson's formulations
is particularly relevant. Referring to Simon Frith's work on the sociolog-
ical implications of musical valuation, and to Frith's reporting of a mode
of dismissive criticism often employed by "mass" audiences in assigning
the adjective stupid to music that consumers sense "demeans us through
our involvement, however unwilling, in the collusive act of listening,"
Johnson appropriates their same tone. His position, hardly unique, is
based, again, on a language analogy: for music to have value it should
possess coherence, continuity, and challenging originality, rather along
the lines of a nicely composed essay. With an eye toward provocation,
Johnson expresses his own perspective on Muzak and its degenerate kin,
the whole clan of sounds regularly served up by radio or in clubs, on tele-
vision, in film, and as an accompaniment to video games: "Much of the
music that surrounds us acts as a kind of aural tranquilizer. So-called el-
evator music is not confined to elevators: music that expunges any un-
familiar element, any hint of complexity or self-development saturates
the private and communal spaces of modern life. This music is inane, stu-
pid, and empty in the same way that repetitive and undeveloped writing
is stupid, full of clichés and non sequiturs, attempting to pass off empty
and worn-out phrases as the vehicles of genuine thought and emotion." 3
This book addresses what Johnson characterized as the hollow and
predictable fakes. The musical and textual clichés, fragments, non se-
quiturs, and undeveloped iterations of twentieth-century media, specifi-
cally those that are related to the noise of "genuine" art and its con-
sumers, form the core of this study. It is largely devoted—by Johnson's
Introduction 3

definition—to stupid music, a construction that brands the convention-

ality of his musical aesthetic and that I appropriate therefore with some
seriousness of purpose. My intent is to bring a methodologically
flexible—that is, a "generalist"—perspective to bear upon music that has
often been represented even by its adherents and its devoted analysts as
something essentially distinct from that which lay at the heart of aca-
demic musical discourse prior to the last decades of the twentieth cen-
tury.
With the advent of historical and critical studies of popular musics
and film music, it has seemed that even as items formerly residing at the
artistic periphery (within the discursive and aesthetic constructions of the
old academy) were being moved toward the foreground, this reposition-
ing demanded mastery of specific methodological and critical strategies.
Particularly when approaching rock and pop, scholars have regularly
turned to academically sanctioned paths of enriched sociological con-
textualization (by which I mean disciplinarily defined methodologies), as
if to underscore such music's privileged ties to the century's material
culture—in the ethnographic sense—which concert hall music did not
enjoy.4 This has encouraged, in some cases at least, the abdication of his-
torical perspective for descriptive culturology.5
While the musics associated with Hollywood cinema and with main-
stream rock and pop that serve as the focus for my discussions have been
on the musicological table for some time, scholars have not encouraged
conversation among works originating within different media (or differ-
ent genres within the same medium). Nor has there been much call for
the integration of historical, critical, and intellectual apparatuses regu-
larly brought to the historiography and criticism of concert hall music.
Even Nicholas Cook's broad and innovative Analysing Musical Multi-
media usually addresses a single topic related to a single work, medium,
or genre in each chapter essay.6 And while in recent years practitioners
of film-music criticism have repeatedly addressed the so-called use of
popular music in film scores (also so-called in many such cases), these
analyses usually amount to narrative glosses. And so I attempt in this
study to bring a wide range of items closer to a single conversational and
methodological center as it continues to be imagined by many scholars
working in the ever more ghettoized realm of European musical muse-
ums with longer histories. In drawing together musical material from
film, rock, and the concert hall, I have tried to acknowledge but not rely
upon the idiolects and approaches linked only to methodological, ter-
minological, or repertorial ghettos of more recent design.
4 Introduction

The embarrassment academics daily confront when we halfheartedly

recite categories of "art" and "popular" that we know are meaningless
or wrong, and the extent to which we still regularly frame our own lan-
guage in air, scare, or typographical quotes, suggests that if we could
comfortably recategorize the objects of our discourse we would likely do
so. Replacing old chestnuts is no less problematic. Many of our system-
atic markers of classification, including even those derived from vocab-
ularies of recent vintage such as "hegemonic" and "counter-hegemonic,"
demark the rest of what in other respects might be legitimate and fluent
expositions (demark in the Deleuzian sense, since they crash into our
otherwise nuanced conversations as clumsily as Hitchcock's seagull into
Tippi Hedrin's forehead). 7 1 tend to ignore most such distinctions except
in those cases where they are decisively called for by the object under
consideration, hoping to expose and emphasize the links between items
formerly stored in different cabinets. In many cases the links are forged
by musical gesture, in others they are suggested by broader cultural read-
ings. Direct relationships between Andrei Tarkovsky and Procol Harum,
T. S. Eliot and Michael Jackson, or Bugs Bunny and Freddie Mercury,
might be trivial or even nonexistent; the webs in which they have been
mutually implicated are not, however, and these transcend directional
associations of influence, imitation, or referentiality.
While my text is bookended by Dante and the Sony PlayStation, re-
spectively, there is no continuous chronological trajectory to its organi-
zation, and some individuals and musical works will be examined from
more than one perspective. So, for example, musical motives associated
with the composers Richard Addinsell and Bernard Herrmann are con-
sidered within a particular frame in chapter i , where their resurrection
as rap samples is shown both to link and to differentiate their presence
in late twentieth-century recorded music in revealing ways. Each "orig-
inal," however, will return later in the book, reconsidered against the
backdrop of some broader contexts for its creation and reception by dif-
ferent audiences in other generations.
Even though this study considers musical or multimedia works that
were widely circulated by the machinery of twentieth-century com-
merce, my choice of "media" rather than "mass media" in the title de-
rives from my sense that the massness of mass media—the feature that
has rendered media products artistically, economically, politically, and
sociologically suspect—is largely an academic digression. In fact, the
consumption of mass media even prior to the digital age, as far back as
the period of music-store listening booths and pre-surround-sound the-
Introduction 5

aters, or even the makeshift viewing environments of earliest cinema I de-

scribe in chapter 6, made room for new forms of individual apprehen-
sion unfettered by social mannerisms and public graces. This grand shift
in musical reception was at least as significant as the new tendency to
meddle with the supposed integrity of classical music's authentic content
and mode of presentation; and while driven perhaps by the availability
of options linked to commerce, it was not configured by commerce at the
level of the individual human experience. For the most part this phe-
nomenon was historically unimaginable except in unusual cases linked
to practices of musica secreta or reservata such as that associated with
the solitary keyboard players of the eighteenth century recalled in chap-
ter 5. Processes of reception provide one thread that may be usefully
traced through the webs of historical linkage associated with the reper-
tory of (stupid) music considered here.
Although my title flaunts the term "classic," this book is concerned
primarily with a collective, not quite definable, yet inescapably powerful
"vernacular imagination." Vernacular here is intended simply in the sense
of something commonly shared or understood by a community. Since my
emphasis throughout this book will be on items that are drawn from
among the most commercially successful and widely consumed products
of twentieth-century musical media, that community must be taken to
consist of what from a sociological perspective is likely a problematically
broad, amorphous, undifferentiated demographic: American and in a
few cases European media audiences of the last century. What I think of
as the "imaginative" classic is generated from within the space of an
artist's imaginary and reflects a creative or re-creative process typically
related to a slate of priorities (aesthetic, ethical, sensual) that intersects
with a prioritized sense of the past. Calling upon a concept based in the
memory arts of the European Middle Ages, I would suggest that the
imaginative classic also denotes a particular collection of boxes associ-
ated with the imagination's reliance upon memory and the essential func-
tion of imaginative memory as both a filter and a repository.8 Thus my
attention turns to Mnemosyne, maternal guardian of memory, in the
book's conclusion. These tracks and processes are significant. The imag-
inative path taken by an auditor to judge that an item—however frag-
mentary and in Johnson's terms insufficient with respect to the syntacti-
cal or grammatical proprieties of "language" as the stuff of
forms—marks an intersection with the classic is as relevant as the clas-
sic's reinvention by that item's creator.
This classic, then, embraces historical and contemporary products as
6 Introduction

well as states and operations of mind, in the latter instance providing a

taxonomic umbrella for a particular mode or trail of reception. By the
activities of evaluating objects to distinguish the classic from the merely
vintage and, for historical works produced in the fifteenth through the
nineteenth centuries, critiquing in retrospect the means by which such
evaluations were recorded, the attention of scholars is typically diverted
from the process of the classic's imagining and the forms taken by its
imaginative promulgation. I examine many items in this book from per-
spectives of both creation and reception. If any single theoretical or dis-
ciplinary position informs my approach to the diverse materials explored
in this study, it is an intention to practice and perhaps extend the poten-
tial of a kind of musicology of the whole that Richard Middleton called
for from a rather different perspective more than a decade ago, an opti-
mistic proposal that for the most part has remained unrealized within the
arena of specialized musicological discourse concerning the musical
media of the twentieth century. 9
Chapters i and 2 examine the ways in which the musical classic, so
labeled, has been heard and understood as an object of reception in a va-
riety of contexts. I mean hearing the classic literally: by what means does
the classic announce itself as an aural presence or a force in operation
outside its own time and context, within a mediated environment, per-
ceived and comprehended by unscreened or unprepared audiences?
Drawing upon notions of "register" as understood within the domain of
historical systems of poetics and rhetoric, and more recently in the arena
of sociolinguistic discourse that gave this expressive practice its musical
name, I suggest a conceptual frame for the creative and receptive pro-
cesses associated with hybrid music. Tracing a single gesture through
multiple registrations in chapter 2. underscores how, unlike taxonomies
of genre or audience, registers function within living systems of expres-
sive discourse. These are often oral (and aural), but even when literate
they tend to be powered by the implicative presence of aural markers.
Chapter 3 extends the registral function of the musical classic in a par-
ticular rhetorical direction and considers the role of media (not only mu-
sical media but all in which music has resonance, including mass-market
literature) in promoting and embodying vernacular or domestic systems
of ethics, political and spiritual.
In this and other cases the recourse to classical gestures within a con-
ventional system of ethical rhetoric is linked to the expressive practices
of economic, ethnic, aesthetic, or social outsiders. Taken to particular ex-
tremes of affectation and representation, they may eventually intersect
Introduction 7

with the traditional aesthetic null sets of kitsch or camp, often associated
with creative artists—some of them encountered in this book—who were
Jewish (like Al Jolson and M a x Steiner), gay (like Jimmy Somerville and
Freddie Mercury) or both (like Allen Ginsberg). Such labels are linked to
perspectives that are more sociological (that is, bound up with the defi-
nition of groups) than artistic or musical. 10 Even in discussing these
zones of cultural activity, I have tried to maintain the focus on specific
intersections of musical and visible gesture positioned within culturally
and chronologically broad categories of expression. I have tried to ana-
lyze even these categories not as touchstones for social theory but as re-
gions within a general musical history of commercial media and artistic
production.
Chapter 4 introduces the second part of the book and attempts to
open up the acoustic, topographical, and temporal spaces of the auditory
imagination addressed in the remaining chapters. Throughout these, I
address the potential relevance of historical aesthetics and cultural prac-
tice to the creation and reception of twentieth-century musical media.
M y point here is not to suggest that twentieth-century media merely re-
iterate or revisit aspects of these environments. I am more intrigued by
the possibility that such cultural analogies might offer unexpectedly rel-
evant frames for our own imaginatively critical hearing of mass-market
works that are usually assigned to more predictable categories. The em-
phasis throughout is on "cinematic" listening, a process of simultaneous
audiation and envisioning; this concept extends beyond film to the
soundscapes of classical and vernacular musics and especially to their hy-
brids. In my discussion of acoustical nostalgia in chapter 5 , 1 suggest—
with the help of visual-art analogies—that by extending our under-
standing of music's expressive capacity to aural features beyond those of
its fundamental elements (like pitch, harmony, timbre), media items of
apparently insignificant aesthetic value often take on a sense of remark-
able depth (in both literal and evaluative understandings of that word).
I consider music's implicit visual dimensions and its occupation of con-
ceptual space within more literally cinematic contexts in chapter 6. There,
and again in chapter 7 , 1 return to matters of gesture and the expressive
function of musical registers described in the first part of the book;
the emphasis here, though, is on the ways in which aural gestures can
trigger the construction or recall of particular image registers and the re-
verse.
In essence, the position on the musical classic in the twentieth century
set forth in these pages is not far removed from that of Wilhelm Hein-
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