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e Contents

PART THREE ARGUMENTS 209

Statements and Classes 212

Translations and Standard Form 215
Terms 216
Quantifiers 219
Diagramming Categorical Statements 223
Sizing Up Categorical Syllogisms 228
Summary 238
Field Problems 240
Self~Assessment Quiz 241
Integrative Exercises 242
Writing Assignments 243

DEDUCTIVE REASONING: PROPOSITIONAL LOGIC 244

Connectives and Truth Values 246
Conjunction 248
Disjunction 250
Negation 253
Conditional 253
Checking for Validity 259
Simple Arguments 259
Tricky Arguments 263
Streamlined Evaluation 266
Summary 271
Field Problems 275
Self~Assessment Quiz 275
Integrative Exercises 277
Writing Assignments 280

Enumerative Induction 283

Sample Size 286
Representativeness 287
Opinion Polls 288
 Contents 8
Statistical Syllogisms 298
Evaluating Statistical Syllogisms 300
Analogicallnduction 302
Relevant Similarities 306
Relevant Dissimilarities 307
The Number of Instances Compared 307
Diversity among Cases 307
Causal Arguments 312
Testing for Causes 314
Causal Confusions 319
Confusing Cause with Temporal Order 323
Necessary and Sufficient Conditions 326
Mixed Arguments 333
Summary 336
Field Problems 337
Self~Assessment Quiz 337
Integrative Exercises 340
Writing Assignments 343

PART FOUR EXPLANATIONS 345

Explanations and Inference 348

Abductive Reasoning 359
Theories and Consistency 360
Theories and Criteria 361
Testability 364
Fruitfulness 365
Scope 367
Simplicity 368
Conservatism 370
Telling Good Theories from Bad 376
A Doomed Flight 379
Summary 386
Field Problems 387
Self~Assessment Quiz 387
8 Contents

Integrative Exercises 389

Writing Assignments 391

Science and Not Science 394

The Scientific Method 396
Testing Scientific Theories 400
Judging Scientific Theories 403
Copernicus versus Ptolemy 403
Evolution versus Creationism 406
Science and Weird Theories 416
Making Weird Mistakes 417
leaping to the Weirdest Theory 418
Mixing What Seems with What Is 419
Misunderstanding the Possibilities 419
judging Weird Theories 421
Talking with the Dead 421
Summary 427
Field Problems 430
Self-Assessment Quiz 431
Integrative Exercises 433
Writing Assignments 435

11 CONTEXTS OF APPLICATION: THINKING CRITICALLY

ABOUT HEALTH, LAW, AND ETHICS 436
Thinking Critically about Health and Health Care 437
Key Skills 437
Evaluating Health Claims in the News 439
Finding and Evaluating Expert Advice 440
Stumbling Blocks 442
Thinking Critically about the law 444
Key Skills 446
Stumbling Blocks 448
Thinking Critically about Ethics 450
Key Skills 450
Stumbling Blocks 456
 Contents 0
Summary 458
Field Problems 461
Self~Assessment Quiz 461
Writing Assignments 462

APPENDIX A ESSAYS FOR EVALUATION 463

APPENDIX B ANSWERS TO SELECT EXERCISES 490

Glossary 521
Notes 527
Index 529
Credits 535
FROM THE PUBLISHER

T
he fourth Canadian edition of The Power ofCriticalThinlting builds on
the successful approach used in the previous Canadian editions that
have served instructors and students so well. It gives first-time students
a comprehensive, engaging, and clear introduction to critical thinking and its
application in the real world.
This latest edition retains the best features of previous editions while adding
new features to help students use their critical thinking skills in their everyday
life. Highlights include the following:

Student-friendly tone. Without compromising

G ,. .
WTO.. E I ....
rigor or oversimplifying material, this intro-
ductory text is written in an engaging tone that
students will enjoy. The authors tackle tough top-
ics with a casual approach, mixed with humour
where appropriate, to enhance students' under-
standing and enjoyment.
 From the Publisher e
Increased practical content. New "Everyday
Problems and Decisions" boxes and an increased
number of "Field Problem" questions help stu~ · ~ ----- s
dents apply critical thinking to familiar everyday
issues in their lives.

Emphasis on evaluation of evidence, author-

ity, and credibility. Students are encouraged to
critically assess evidence and claims put forward
by experts, news media, business leaders, and
friends. In each case, the main principles and
procedures are explained and illustrated..

-.....-. -..
00
..-........_..__
_ -.. .......-
Extensive treatment of scientific: reaaoning.
The book offers a chapter each on inductive
-............
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.. .....,.....
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.............. - . . _ ...... ..lid.
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reasoning and causal arguments (Chapter 8),

scientific theories and inference: (Chapter 9),
and scientific method and theory evaluation
(Chapter 10). Many helpful examples show
how scientific reasoning can be applied. to a
wide range of questions in many scientific
fields, everyday life, and even the realm of
the extraordinary, the paranormal, and the
supernatural.
-ond---
........... ....................
Rigorous attention to detail. All exercises,
-
--·-~-----
philosophical facts, figures, and diagrams have
been checked. and validated by a selection of
leading experts in the field.
.........
.---·"odollll<~ -
..,.. $dOIIIIfl< ~

..........
~
.....................
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8 From the Publisher

Enhanced Pedagogy
This edition of 1he Power of Critical 1hinking builds on the pedagogical
approach that has successfully hdped students practise and refine their critical
thinking skills.

Self,lmage and Consumerism

It is always imporunt to watch out when things get personal. One of the sinations in which that is par-
ticularly imporunt is when someone is trying to sell you something. Of course, there is a sense in which
buying consumer goods should be personal-after aiL more often than not you are buying things ror
yourself, and your own desires and values ~a proper role to pi~. However, advertisers and salespeo-
ple may try to make purchases personal in another sense: they may try to convince you that having their
product really is important to your self-conception. your own vision of who you are. In such sinations. it
is worth taking a step back. and asking:

• Is my sense of worth really tied to how expensive my jeans are?

• Does having a car with more horsepower make me more powerful?
• Is this shampoo really going to go beyond deaning my hair to make me happy?

Consumer purchases can be important decisions: if they are going to be personal, that should be
your decision. not someone else's!

•EVERYDAY PROBLEMS AND

DECSIONS• BOXES
allow students to apply their
critical thinking skills to real,workl
problems.

__
..--
-----
...- ..

A NEW MARGINAL GLOSSARY

highlights key terms and concepts
close to where they are discussed in
the teXt.
 From the Publisher G

Conflicting Claims
• If a claim conflicts with other daims that we have good reason to accept. we have good grounds fur
doubting it.
• If a claim conflicts with our background information, we have good reason to doubt it.
• We should proportion our belief to the evidence.
• It's not reasonable to believe a claim when there is no good reason fur doing so.
• If a claim conflicts with expert opinion, we have good reason to doubt it.
• When the experts disagree about a claim, we have good reason to suspend judgment.

•REVIEW NOTEs• BOXES

appear throughout each chapter to
reiterate the main points of chapter
sections, improving comprehension
and making later review more
efficient.

Standard Form versus Fuzziness

We take the trouble to translate categorical statements into standard form fur several reasons-one
of them being that language is fuzzy, fuzzy,
fuzzy. The famed logician Bertrand Russell
agreed: •Because language is misleading.
as well as because it is diffuse and inexact ~u~~.Y Wutt!j was a bear:
when applied to logic: (fur which it was never t:vtty Wvtt.y had no hair,
intended), logical symbolism is absolutely i.f Fvtzy Wuzzy wasn'+ .fut?.!J,
necessary to any exact or thorough treat· wa5 he?
ment of our subject• (Introduction to
Mathematical Philosophy).
We can see a good example of language
fuzziness in this type of categorical state·
ment: ·An S are not P.· Take the statement
•All Bigfoot monsters are not apes.· Does
this mean that (1) no Bigfoot monsters are
apes or (2) that some Bigfoot monsters are
not apes? Statement 1 is an E-statement;
statement 2 is an O.statement. To defeat
fuzziness. we have to apply some categorical
logic: and translate the original sentence into either an E· or o-staternent.
•FOOD FOR THOUGHT. BOXES
provide additional, sometimes
humorous, material on a topic
and challenge students to apply
the critical thinking skills they are
learning. The material is purposely
diverse in both subject matter and
format.
e From the Publisher

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_ . . . _ ... _ ABUNDANT EXERCISES
cover a wide range
. , Wi. et--~ sw
of top1cs th s ~u:u an ers given at the
back of the book (Append
ix B). 1here are
hundreds of~ fou
nd throu~ each
chapter, presented progre
to complex. elementary
familiar to unusual
ssively
to more
. :c:':nd

C on te m po ra ry Desig
n
The design of th e four
th Canadian edit~on
reflectS thev t"brancy an d ex cit em en t of learmng
how to think critically wi . .
thout sacrificmg con-
tent or authoritativeness.
 From the Publisher e
Aids to Student Learning

preview the contents of each

CA'TEGORICAL LOGIC
chapter with chapter objectives
that provide a condse overview of
CHAPT'ER OBJEC11VES
the key concepts to be covered
Statloments llld a-
llluwllllloodrloiD
CHAPTER SUMMARIES
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• dofftoulljeatlm\p-tlm\mpu""....,-.q~and.,allty.
provide additional support and
~ ... -d Sllendenl Form the end of each chapter to ensure
• -ordinlry--inlo-~c;olfurm.
_ , . . . . , . _ . . . . . _ _ _ form. students have identified and
understood key concepts.
Dl• .._,.. CMegorbl.__

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- - - " .. -thaD. It olooald .... hdp.,... _
dawb ........... .,....,.....o,odoh-Ja ... _.,... ......
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activities in five chapters, introduce .,..._.,.......,.. A&.r IDftqUfns dolo -""'-.leipn>bobly- ""'
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8 From the Publisher

e PART THIEE ~ts

STUDENT ACTIVITIES, included at the end of each
chapter; reinforce concepts and ideas through a
variety of formats, including the following:
I Foeld Problems
G5
I. Co onllnt -and ch«k eM op.-.ton or editorial Jtaioft ol rour &oc:al ~­
• "Field ProblemsHthat invite students to apply p-apa or OM J cbr n.-.kln-al new·~- (dtt c•wa.t~ AMilor Nm.J
hi). Wlc ..ftorc o( ch.c cdllorilllor kuru co lk cdi:Of. fi.nd a catc:f>ric:::tl
newly acqui red and refined critical thinki ng syL:Jcbm m.. you. .aupca u ln~kt. Auc:• .. nlkliiY tMinJ 1M 'Wno
db&J:am mfthod. l(h U Indeed i.tw»ki wric a I )0-200 word o.:pb.Rltioft
skills to "real world " problems. o(how you wouU a:ph.ln. co «Mn<<nc who doan\ know aboUI uctp-
lall0£k. whu'swronawlth the araummc.
• "Self-Assessment QuizzesHthat allow students 2. C.brdc et«nl ftC'WS ttpOR.IIIO find One C*Ctprial UM<me:l'll: m:adc: by tbc:
prime: mlnbtcr of' Canada. a (tdcnlubina mi-liJltt, the m;qorofyour
to test their understanding of t he material. ck)l or ore o(chc pi'Cmlera. Tr.a,.luc: the aac:mcnt intoM.and..rd form.
(I) Con_w:rucr a ~JIJ cuqorical 'Yiosiw 1.11in& the st~ttmtn t • the: oo~
• "Integrative Exercises" that help students c llu lon and ~Upplyln& whatt~r prC'miJCS )OU dum appropriate:. Atiumc
clue your pi'Cn\lxs arc uuc. (l)Thcn conJ&Na an iJW•JJsyiJosism using
bring information and techniq ues from chc s1mt sr.uc•ncnc • the ClOnclujjon and JUpplying p~t:mi.a, :also assumed
robe rrur.ln both :argumcnq , uy tO k«p t.hutoalC'mcng as ~al iuic •
multiple chapters together; ensuring that po..iblc (e.g., dOle tO what you m~ ~~a !Ally reid in a 11C:WSJnag::rlinc).
3 . Think or :a piece or llllvitlr you h:avc been given that w.u pracnlC'd
their understandi ng of critical thinki ng is in ayU081ulc ronn. (Hint: thla o rten happens when a I Jnkt:rS fir-st
comprehensive. p~mlsc lo; :a general • ule o r thwnb, :and hi3 o r her l«ond prcmi5e
rdata: tlut n.tle tOyouraurcnt sltuallon. lhe conclusion wiJJ be advioe
a bned iptdlicaUyat you) b the :araumcm a good 0 11e:~ Did you take
• "Writing Assignments" that allow students to thcadvlerJ
apply their knowledge and practise worki ng in
longer formats, such as essays.
======::::;::.01 Self-Assessment Quiz

I . Wlutlsaqu311'1dlia!Wh• a~e chc twc.qumtkia lha can be wed in

e
CJ.tttPritJI ltltcmMII!
2. Whu.-c the tWO qwltlu cha un be cxptacd in cwpical
Re•Ot'IS tar Bek4 atd ocu..b t a.anen11!
3. Wh:at.-clhcfour ••d.-d-(ounokp)licalsarcmmu?(Sp«fythcm
bJ' qualty and quaNityand by lr:acr dap._icnt.)
For cxho(lkcfolowi"C••nwNJ. idrNtydat •b;«t..d prulic:ac~t-mu,
the~~~~ Ike quaNity, and cbc Rime of chc form (un.iYCHai affirmuivt>. uni-
ftl'li1l rwp:M. pvdculu 'lffirma.dvc.or panku.lu ncp~i~).

-----
e PAftTON( S...tic.t
 From the Publisher 8
Supplements
The Power of Critical Thinking also includes a comprehensive online ancillary
package, available at www.oupcanada.com/MacDonaldVaughn4Ce. An
instructor's manual, a test generator, and a robust set of PowerPoint slides--ani-
mated for maximum pedagogical effectiveness-are available to those teaching
the course. (Please contact your OUP sales representative for login and pass-
word information). A student study guide is also available online (no password
required); this effective resource allows students to take advantage of a number
of study notes, quizzes, and additional exercises.

About the Book

The Power of Critical Thinking offers a Instructor Reso~Ices

comprehensive Introduction to the systematic,

rational evaluation of the arguments, claims, You need a password to access these resources.
and evidence that lead to beliefs. In clear and Please contact your local
accessible language, the authors take students Sales and Editorial Representative for more
through all essential components of critical information.
analysis- from identifying premises and
conclusions, to recognizing common fallacies
and misrepresentations of fact, to using
Student Resour~
I nsoectfon copy request deductive and Inductive reasoning to
deconstruct arguments, to overcoming
Ordering Information psychological, social, and philosophical
Impediments that can cloud clear thinking.
Contact & Comments
PREFACE

A
s we enter our fourth edition, the Canadian version of 1he Power of
Critical1hinking continues to evolve. The original American version,
with its US spelling and cultural references, is an increasingly distant
cousin. The current edition features many new end-of-chapter questions, and
five new Essays for Evaluation at the back of the book-all on topics of current
interest, and all by Canadian authors. Every chapter also now includes one or
more Everyday Problems and Decisions boxes, illustrating the application of
that chapter's material to the reader's everyday life. Among many other changes,
we've also updated many of the end-of-chapter Field Problems, added new
material on the dangers of fooling ourselves, and included a useful new textbox
on the use of propositional logic in essay-writing in Chapter 7. Overall, we've
worked hard to keep the book practical and informal, while at the same time
retaining its philosophical rigour and integrity. We've tried to keep the book
reasonably fun, and useful.

Acknowledgements
As I'm sure you've heard, critical thinking textbooks are produced by elves in
caverns deep in the Earth. Just kidding. They are the product of a lot of hard
work by real people, including people other than those whose names you see
on the front cover. First and foremost, I'd like to thank, as always, my friends
at Oxford University Press, including especially Stephen Kotowych and Meg
Patterson, for their patience and suppon and for the very high quality of their
work. In addition, I would like to thank several anonymous reviewers and two
anonymous, expen proofreaders for their excellent contributions. (I'd also like
to blame the reviewers and proofreaders for any mistakes that you may find. But
you're a critical thinker, so you'll see right through me.) In fact, of course, the
mistakes that remain are my own fault. If you spot one, let me know. Finally,
as always, I would like to thank Professor Nancy Walton, who on a daily basis
teaches me the value, and the proper place, of critical thinking, and does so
more often than not with a smile.

Reviewers
We gratefully acknowledge the contributions of the following reviewers, whose
thoughtful comments and suggestions have helped to shape this new edition:
Kelvin Booth, Thompson Rivers University
Laura Byrne, University of Onawa
Antoine Goulem, Seneca College
 Preface G
Sam Hillier, University ofAlberta
Gregory Lavers, Concordia University
JeffVancha, University of Regina
Patrick Walsh, University of Manitoba

Chris MacDonaltJ
Ryerson University
This page intentionally left blank
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