Chapter 1: What is Politics?

Introduction

Politics is inherently exciting and complex because it revolves around disagreement and cooperation
among individuals and groups. People di8er in their views on how society should operate, who should
receive what, and how resources and power should be distributed. Aristotle described politics as the
"master science" because it shapes human e8orts to achieve the "Good Society." At its core, politics
is a social activity that emerges from human interaction and collective decision-making. Solitary
individuals cannot engage in politics; it requires dialogue, debate, and negotiation among people.
Even Robinson Crusoe, living in isolation, could not engage in politics until the arrival of a companion
to interact with.

The disagreements within politics extend beyond daily debates to fundamental questions about
society, governance, and human behavior. What makes an activity political? Where does politics take
place—only in governments or throughout society? How are decisions made, and who gets to
decide? The academic study of politics embraces diverse theoretical approaches and
methodologies, reflecting the complexity of the subject and the diverse perspectives on what
constitutes politics.

Defining Politics

Politics, at its broadest, involves making, preserving, and amending the general rules by which
societies live. These rules govern interactions and resource allocations, making politics central to
organized human life. Politics links two essential human dynamics:

• Conflict: Politics arises because individuals have diverse opinions, needs, and interests.
These di8erences lead to disagreements about societal rules and governance.

• Cooperation: Despite conflicts, people recognize the need to work together to influence or
uphold these rules. Hannah Arendt described political power as “acting in concert”—a
collective e8ort.

Politics is not merely about resolving conflicts but is better understood as the process of seeking
conflict resolution. Because of diversity (people are not all alike) and scarcity (resources are limited),
politics becomes an inevitable and permanent feature of human existence. While some conflicts can
be resolved through negotiation and consensus, others remain unresolved, highlighting the ongoing
nature of political activity.

Key Challenges in Defining Politics

1. Loaded Associations: Politics is often associated with negative ideas such as corruption,
deceit, and violence. Historically, figures like Samuel Johnson and Henry Adams described
politics as manipulative and self-serving. This view persists in phrases like “o8ice politics”
and perceptions of politicians as hypocrites.

2. Diverse Definitions: Scholars and thinkers define politics in varied ways, including as:

o The exercise of power.

 o The science of government.

o The making of collective decisions.

o The allocation of scarce resources.

o A practice involving deception and manipulation.

This diversity reflects the complexity of politics, making it a contested concept. A comprehensive
definition is "the making, preserving, and amending of general social rules," but even this is debated.
For example, does politics involve only peaceful processes, or does it include coercion? Does it
occur in all institutions or only in governments and public life?

Approaches to Defining Politics

1. Politics as an Arena or Location: Behavior is deemed "political" based on where it occurs,

such as in government or public institutions.

2. Politics as a Process or Mechanism: Political behavior is defined by its characteristics, such

as negotiation, power dynamics, or conflict resolution, and can occur in any social context.

Key Definitions of Politics

1. Politics as the Art of Government

o Politics originates from the Greek term polis (city-state), referring to the governance
of a community. Ancient Greek city-states, like Athens, practiced forms of
governance that laid the foundation for modern political ideas.

o This classical view sees politics as the activity of governments and the exercise of
authority to maintain order and implement decisions. David Easton described it as
 the “authoritative allocation of values,” where governments allocate benefits,
rewards, or penalties in response to societal pressures.

o However, this perspective confines politics to formal institutions like parliaments and
excludes other social activities, such as business, family, or cultural life. It also limits
politics to a narrow group of actors (politicians, civil servants) and ignores the growing
influence of global and international politics.

2. Politics as Public AEairs

o Politics extends beyond governments to the public sphere, encompassing civil

society (e.g., businesses, trade unions, and community groups). Civil society
consists of independent organizations, associations, and groups formed by
individuals to achieve personal or collective goals. These include non-governmental
organizations (NGOs), advocacy groups, charities, trade unions, and community
associations. By providing a platform for citizens to voice their concerns, advocate
for change, and contribute to societal development, civil society plays a critical role
in bridging the gap between the state and the people. It serves as a space where
diverse interests are represented, power is challenged, and collaboration for the
public good takes place, making it an indispensable component of political life.

o Rooted in Aristotle’s belief that humans are “political animals,” this view emphasizes
creating a just society and living the "good life." Aristotle argued that only within a
political community could individuals achieve their highest potential and live
ethically.

o Feminists challenge this perspective, arguing that politics also occurs in private
spheres like family life, where power dynamics and gender roles shape society. For
example, the radical feminist slogan "the personal is the political" highlights how
private relationships reinforce societal inequalities, such as patriarchal dominance
and traditional gender roles.

3. Politics as Compromise and Consensus

o Politics involves resolving conflicts through negotiation and compromise rather than
violence or coercion. This view is often associated with the idea of politics as "the art
of the possible."

o Bernard Crick defined politics as reconciling di8ering interests within a community

to maintain its welfare and survival. This perspective highlights the importance of
dialogue, debate, and mutual understanding.

o Critics argue this view aligns with Western democracies, neglecting authoritarian
regimes and non-democratic practices. Nevertheless, it underscores the role of
politics as a civilizing force that avoids bloodshed and chaos.

4. Politics as Power
 o Politics is about power and its exercise in all social relationships, from families to
global institutions. Power can be:

§ Decision-making: Influencing actions.

§ Agenda-setting: Controlling what issues are discussed.

§ Thought control: Shaping beliefs and desires.

o Harold Lasswell defined politics as "who gets what, when, how," emphasizing the
struggle over scarce resources and the means to achieve desired outcomes.

o Feminists and Marxists view politics as rooted in power dynamics, emphasizing

oppression (e.g., patriarchy and class struggle) but also its potential for
emancipation. For example, Marx predicted the overthrow of class exploitation
through proletarian revolution.

Approaches to Studying Politics

1. Philosophical/Normative Tradition

This approach asks ethical and moral questions about how society should be organized. Thinkers like
Plato and Aristotle focused on ideals, such as justice, equality, and freedom. For example, in Plato's
Republic, he imagined a perfect society led by wise and virtuous philosopher-kings. This tradition
isn't about what actually happens in politics but about what ought to happen to create a fair and good
society.

2. Empirical Tradition

This approach is about observing and describing political systems as they actually are, not how they
should be. Aristotle, for example, studied di8erent types of government and classified them based
on real-world observations. This method uses facts and evidence to understand politics, avoiding
opinions or ideals.

3. Behavioralism

Popular in the 20th century, this approach uses data and statistics to study political behavior, like
how people vote or how laws are made. It looks for patterns in behavior to explain political actions.
However, critics say it oversimplifies politics by ignoring values or deeper meanings.

4. Rational-Choice Theory

This method views people as rational and self-interested, making decisions based on what benefits
them most. It’s like thinking of politics as a game where everyone plays to win, whether they're
individuals or groups. While useful, this approach sometimes ignores the cultural and historical
factors that shape behavior.

5. New Institutionalism

This approach focuses on the rules (both written and unwritten) that shape political actions.
Institutions like parliaments, courts, or even social norms are seen as the "rules of the game" that
guide or limit behavior. It also considers how history and culture influence these rules, making
institutions dynamic and ever-changing.

6. Critical Approaches

These include perspectives like feminism, Marxism, and green politics, which challenge traditional
ideas. They highlight inequality and oppression in politics. For example: Feminism focuses on how
gender inequality shapes politics. Marxism examines class struggles and economic exploitation.
Post-colonialism studies how colonial histories still influence global politics. These approaches
emphasize uncovering hidden power dynamics and fighting for fairness in political systems.
Key Concepts in Political Analysis

1. Authority
Authority means having legitimate power that people accept as rightful. It's like when people
agree that someone has the right to lead or make decisions. Max Weber explained three types
of authority:
• Traditional Authority: Based on customs and traditions. For example, kings and queens
inherit their power because of long-standing practices in monarchies.
• Charismatic Authority: Based on a leader's personal charm or qualities that inspire people.
For example, leaders like Mahatma Gandhi or Martin Luther King Jr.
• Legal-Rational Authority: Based on formal laws and rules. For instance, a president elected
through a legal process has this type of authority.

2. Power
Power is the ability to get things done or achieve goals. Steven Lukes identified three ways
power is used (called the “three faces” of power):
-Decision-making Power: This is when someone directly influences decisions, like passing a
law.
-Agenda-setting Power: This is about deciding what issues are discussed or ignored. For
example, media deciding to focus on climate change or avoid other topics.
-Thought Control: This is when power shapes people's beliefs and desires, often through
propaganda or cultural norms.

3. Public vs. Private Spheres

Traditionally, politics was seen as something that happens in public spaces, like
governments, businesses, or courts. Feminists argue that politics is also present in private
 life, such as family dynamics or gender roles. For example, who makes decisions at home or
how societal expectations impact relationships also reflect power structures.

4. Concepts, Models, and Theories

Concepts: These are ideas we use to understand politics, like "democracy" or "equality." For
instance, democracy can mean everyone votes on every issue (direct democracy) or electing
representatives to decide for us (representative democracy).
Models and Theories: These help us analyze political situations. For example, theories of
power or justice help us understand how political systems work or should work.

The Political System

The political system model, a framework to understand how political decisions are made and how
they interact with society. This model is particularly inspired by David Easton's systems analysis of
politics. Here's a detailed explanation of the components:

1. People (Input Side)

The people are the starting point of the political system. They represent the broader society,
including citizens, organizations, and interest groups. This group generates the inputs into the
political system.
 • Inputs:
Inputs are the demands and supports that flow from the people into the system. These include:
o Demands: Requests or expectations directed at the government. For example, citizens
may demand better healthcare, more jobs, or stricter environmental regulations.
o Supports: Actions or behaviors that legitimize the political system, such as voting, paying
taxes, or showing trust in institutions.

Inputs reflect societal needs, priorities, and opinions and are critical for ensuring the political system
remains responsive.

2. Gatekeepers

Gatekeepers are intermediaries that control, filter, or influence the inputs before they reach the
government. They play a crucial role in ensuring that only specific or prioritized demands are
presented to decision-makers. Examples of gatekeepers include:

• Media: Determines which issues gain public attention and how they are framed.
• Interest Groups: Advocate for specific causes and shape public demands.
• Political Parties: Organize and prioritize demands from their supporters.
• Bureaucracies: Evaluate the feasibility of demands before they reach decision-makers.

Gatekeepers help manage complexity by streamlining societal demands and ensuring the political
system is not overwhelmed.

3. Government (Processing Side)

The government is where inputs are processed into outputs. It includes institutions like the
executive, legislature, judiciary, and bureaucracy. The government's role involves:

• Decision-making: Considering inputs and determining which demands to address.

• Policy Formation: Translating demands into actionable policies and laws.
• Implementation: Enforcing laws, allocating resources, and executing programs.

The government acts as the core decision-making body that transforms societal demands into
tangible actions.

4. Outputs

Outputs are the results of the political system's decision-making process. These include:

• Policies: Laws, regulations, and programs created to address societal demands.

 • Actions: Specific measures implemented to meet public needs, such as infrastructure
development, social welfare programs, or tax reforms.

Outputs impact society and are visible in how the government responds to the demands and
supports provided by the people.

5. Feedback Loop

The feedback loop connects the outputs back to the people, closing the cycle of interaction. After
policies are implemented, citizens and groups evaluate their effectiveness and outcomes, providing
feedback to the system. This feedback can take various forms:

• Positive feedback (e.g., satisfaction, continued support for the government).

• Negative feedback (e.g., protests, demands for policy changes).

Feedback becomes new input for the system, ensuring it adapts to societal needs and remains
dynamic over time.

Globalization and Politics

Global trends blur the lines between domestic politics and international relations. Issues like
climate change, economic interdependence, and global conflicts necessitate interdisciplinary
approaches, challenging traditional distinctions in political analysis. Globalization has also
expanded the scope of political actors, including multinational corporations, NGOs, and
transnational movements, highlighting the interconnected nature of modern politics.