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 Contents vii

Social Relationships:
Marriage, Family, Kinship, and Friendship 150
Learning Objectives 150
Marriage 151
Family Structure 158
Families and Change 162
Kinship and Systems of Relatedness: Ways of Organizing Human Interdependence 165
Beyond Kinship 177
Theories of Relatedness: Kin-Based and Non–Kin-Based Societies 180
Key Terms 182
Chapter Summary 182
Critical Thinking Questions 183
Suggested Readings 183
Related Websites 183

Making a Living 184

Learning Objectives 184
Nature, Culture, and Landscape 185
Culture and Livelihood 190
Subsistence Strategies 191
Phases of Economic Activity 194
A Dialectic between the Meaningful and the Material 210
Key Terms 211
Chapter Summary 211
Critical Thinking Questions 212
Suggested Readings 212
Related Websites 212

Play, Art, Myth, and Ritual 214

Learning Objectives 214
Play 215
Art 220
Myth 228
Ritual 232
Combining Play, Art, Myth, and Ritual 236
Key Terms 238
viii Contents

Chapter Summary 238

Critical Thinking Questions 239
Suggested Readings 239
Related Websites 239

States of Being in Wellness and Illness 240

By Roberta Robin Dods

Learning Objectives 240

Medical Anthropology 242
Beyond the Science–Tradition Divide 242
Integrated Approaches and Holism in Medical Anthropology 244
Cultural Interpretations and Labels of Illness and Disease 246
Environments and Well-Being 251
Health-Care Delivery Systems 258
Epidemiology and Public Health 265
Integrated, Applied Critical Medical Anthropology: Holism in the Service of Wellness 267
Key Terms 271
Chapter Summary 271
Critical Thinking Questions 272
Suggested Readings 272
Related Websites 272

World View 274

Learning Objectives 274
The Role of Metaphor, Metonymy, and Symbol 275
Key Metaphors 277
Religion 279
World Views in Operation: Two Case Studies 285
Maintaining and Changing a World View 289
World Views as Instruments of Power 292
Religion and Secularism 293
Key Terms 297
Chapter Summary 297
Critical Thinking Questions 298
Suggested Readings 298
Related Websites 298
 Contents ix

PART III | Organization of Life: Local to Global 299

Social Organization and Power 300
Learning Objectives 300
The Search for the Laws of Social Organization 302
The Power to Act 303
Power as an Independent Entity 315
The Power of the Imagination 316
History as a Prototype of and for Political Action 321
Negotiating the Meaning of History 323
Key Terms 324
Chapter Summary 324
Critical Thinking Questions 325
Suggested Readings 325
Related Websites 325

A Global World 326

Learning Objectives 326
Views of the Political Economy 328
Cultural Processes in a Global World 331
Globalization and the Nation-State 338
Human Rights, Globalization, and the Language of Social Justice 343
Cultural Imperialism, Cultural Hybridization, and Cosmopolitanism 350
Key Terms 356
Chapter Summary 356
Critical Thinking Questions 357
Suggested Readings 357
Related Websites 357

Applying Anthropology in Everyday Life 358

Learning Objectives 358
Anthropology in the World at Large 359
Practical Applications 361
Anthropology and Policy 365
Anthropology and the Challenges of Global Citizenship 366
Awareness and Uncertainty 373
x Contents

Freedom and Constraint 374

Going Somewhere? 375
Key Terms 376
Chapter Summary 376
Critical Thinking Questions 376
Suggested Readings 376
Related Websites 377

Glossary 378
References 385
Credits 399
Index 400
Maps
2.1 Sidi Lahcen Lyussi 44 8.1 Plains Cree 208
2.2 Komachi 46 9.1 Yoruba 236
3.1 The British Empire in the 1920s 63 9.2 Sinhalese 237
3.2 North American Culture Areas 66 10.1 Haiti 256
5.1 Kpelle 105 11.1 Fang 282
5.2 Giriama 107 11.2 Huichol 285
5.3 Dani 118 11.3 Guider 289
5.4 Cairo 121 11.4 Kwaio 291
6.1 Gopalpur 127 12.1 Somalis (Northern) 303
7.1 Nyinba 155 12.2 Beng 311
7.2 Iteso 156 12.3 Bolivian Tin Miners 317
7.3 Khalapur Rajputs 157 12.4 Sefrou 318
7.4 Mende 161 12.5 Sedaka 319
7.5 Los Pinos 164 12.6 Northern Peruvian Highlands 322
7.6 Navajo 170 13.1 Thailand 348
7.7 Nyakyusa 179 14.1 Japan 361
7.8 Boran 179 14.2 Rione Monti 368
7.9 Sherbro 180

0 300 a 0 300
SPAIN Mediterranean Sea sk A rct
a

km ic
Al

Str. of Gibraltar Port C ircle km

Yukon

Alexandria No
Said rth
we
Bolivian Tin Miners
ATLANTIC OCEAN Suez Canal st
Terri Nunavut CO
San M

Rabat to ries
Cairo RD
Sidi Lahcen Casablanca PERU OR BRAZIL
SAUDI
igue

Ly ussi CANADA IE
Marrakech ARABIA
LIBYA

Canary
NT

Lake
l

A IN S
Ni

M O U NT
AL

n
le

Islands
O A T LA S British Titicaca La Paz
a
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EGYPT
M
ew

C Columbia BOLIVIA
an

to
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tch

A LT

Alberta
OC

ba
i
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ea
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IPLA

ALGERIA Sucre
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NO

Potosí
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HILE
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M MALI km km ARGENTINA

Map 2.1 Map 5.4 Map 8.1 Map 12.3

Sidi Lahcen Lyussi 44 Cairo 121 Plains Cree 208 Bolivian Tin Miners 317
Preface to the
Canadian Edition
Roberta Robin Dods

In this fourth Canadian edition of Cultural Anthropology: A Perspective on the Human Condition, we con-
tinue to situate students in a world view informed by a concern for social justice within a discussion of the
discipline of anthropology—specifically, cultural anthropology. As globalization brings us into ever-closer
relationships with peoples around the world, the anthropological perspective comes into sharper focus. We
are challenged to find our better selves in times of change and upheaval as we consider the complications of
living in a world of deep diversity. Of all the disciplines offered in our universities, anthropology is like no
other in the opportunity to situate each of us in the better place of understanding ourselves and others.
Some chapters have been reorganized to add new materials but, as with the earlier Canadian editions,
the conceptual integrity has been maintained. We continue with the 14-chapter structure, designed to fit
the semester system of most Canadian universities. Each chapter begins with an outline and a set of learning
objectives and concludes with a list of key terms, a chapter summary, critical thinking questions, and lists
of suggested readings and related websites. These framing materials challenge students to integrate learned
concepts while providing them with a window to a wider world of inquiry. This edition also contains a new
“Living Anthropology” box at the end of most chapters that features insights on topical issues in the field
from up-and-coming anthropologists in Canada.
In Chapter 1, the beginning of Part I: The Tools of Cultural Anthropology, we begin with a discus-
sion of anthropology and its four traditional subfields—biological anthropology, archaeology, linguistic
anthropology, and cultural anthropology—as well as what could effectively be considered its fifth subfield:
applied anthropology. The theme of applied anthropology in its various forms echoes throughout this text.
We continue with an introduction to cultural anthropology—its scope and its goals. Further, we explain the
concept of culture and examine the critique of its use within a wider historical perspective, and we emerge
with an understanding of the efficacy of a holistic approach to anthropological study. We also introduce the
methodology of fieldwork and its resulting reportage—ethnography—and conclude with a discussion of
ethnocentrism.
We examine ethnographic fieldwork in detail in Chapter 2, offering insight into forms of data collec-
tion, ways to prepare for “the field,” professional ethics, and culture shock. We also compare three principal
modes of ethnographic research: positivist, reflexive, and multi-sited. Our explanation of the dialectic of
fieldwork considers the roles people play when acting as an anthropologist’s guide in the field, the effects of
fieldwork on all involved, and the value and open-ended nature of anthropological knowledge.
Our focus in Chapter 3 is on colonialism, capitalism, and modernity. Viewing historical developments
through a critical lens, we examine the rise of political economies and place anthropology as a “player” in the
colonial encounter. We then critique the development and use of various classification systems, including
 Preface xiii

the culture areas classifications that evolved in North America. In conclusion, we reflect on post-colonial
realities as a counterpoint and a challenge.
In Chapter 4, which begins Part II: The Resources of Culture, our objective is to understand the theor-
etical and practical aspects of language and its use. Here, we discuss the relationship between language and
culture and the importance of symbolic representation. We introduce some of Charles Hockett’s design fea-
tures of language, and we overview the components of language (phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics,
pragmatics, and ethnopragmatics). We also consider linguistic inequality and areas of negotiated meaning
exemplified by pidgin languages. The chapter concludes with a brief statement on the dialectic between ex-
perience and language and the creation of ambiguity in symbolic systems.
Beginning from the observation that every individual views the world from a unique position, we investi-
gate the nature of identity and the individual in Chapter 5. First, we explore how individual psychology is situ-
ated in the context of a symbolic, cultural world and how cultural schemas and prototypes shape the ways we
perceive our experiences. We then outline interpretations of intelligence, cognitive (learning) styles, reasoning,
and logic. Next, we examine emotion as the product of the dialectic between bodily arousal and cognitive inter-
pretation mediated by, and embedded within, a cultural matrix. Finally, we discuss ranges of sexual and gender
identities and how those identities are culturally informed. Norms and normative constructs are considered.
In Chapter 6, we delve into social inequality and explore the multi-dimensional nature of inequality in
terms of class, caste, race, and ethnic divisions. We begin by considering the implications of class-stratified
societies and class mobility. Next, we present examples of caste, focusing in particular on how divisions of
caste impact peoples’ way of living in India. We then survey the discredited concept of “race” and its mani-
festation in today’s world, keeping in mind the ethical implications that often arise when “race” is perceived
as a social division. Finally, we reflect upon definitions of ethnicity before concluding with an examination of
what constitutes a nation, what a national identity is, and how national identity may manifest in nationalism.
In Chapter 7, we analyze the complexities of human social relationships, focusing on different inter-
pretations of marriage, family, kinship, and friendship. Throughout the chapter, we investigate what de-
termines relatedness and group membership, with an awareness of the role of sex and gender in systems of
social organization. We discuss marriage as a social process in the context of economic exchange and family
alliance. As we explore the dimensions of family life, we outline various family structures and note how
families change over time and in response to new global circumstances. We also compare kin-based versus
non–­­kin-based societies and conclude with an appreciation for the nuances of the dimensions of group life.
Making a living is our central focus in Chapter 8. We consider subsistence strategies before moving on
to discuss the relationship between production, distribution, and consumption. Additionally, we note the
differences between internal (needs) and external (resources) explanations of consumption patterns. We
also explore the cultural and symbolic nature of consumption and then elucidate distribution and exchange
at local and global levels by examining various forms of exchange—from reciprocity to redistribution to
market exchange.
In Chapter 9, we discuss play, art, myth, and ritual. We begin with play, which is an open system that
allows us to communicate about communicating (metacommunication) and provides an entrée to mean-
ingful reflexivity. From play, we move on to discuss first sport as embedded in the prevailing social order
and then art as play that produces significant transformation-representation. We also explore the relation-
ships between myths, as charters for social action and providers of stories of truth, and ritual, a culturally
defined schema that brings text and performance together and that can function as a powerful form of
metacommunication.
Chapter 10 focuses on an applied discipline that has been gaining attention in recent years: medical
anthropology. While a chapter is not enough to cover all the diverse topics of study that medical anthropolo-
gists investigate, we discuss many themes at the heart of the discipline and offer examples of how researchers
have applied these themes to real-world situations. We emphasize holism, particularly in our discussion of
the impact of physical, social, and cultural environments on the well-being of individuals. We also consider
various culturally informed approaches to health care and ways of labelling and defining illness and disease.
In addition, we revisit some ethical considerations as we explore the challenges involved in studying human
health. Above all, we emphasize the importance of being open to traditional knowledge and non-Western
ways of healing.
xiv Preface

In Chapter 11, we consider the seemingly simple—yet actually very complex—subject of world view
in the context of key metaphors. We explore the role of metaphor, metonymy, and symbolic thought and
comment on the anthropological analysis of religion and secularism within the context of world view. As we
come to understand world views as instruments of power, we also come to understand how key metaphors
and world views are maintained and modified in a world of change.
We begin Part III: Organization of Life: Local to Global with a discussion of social organization and
patterns of human interdependence in Chapter 12, noting that no single cause can explain the complexities
of human social relations. We consider the human power to act, various forms of social power, and explan-
ations of why human beings submit to institutionalized power. As we investigate how humans invest the
world with meaning, we also discuss how people bargain for reality as they negotiate the meaning of history
and tradition.
We explore the emergence of the global world in Chapter 13. In the context of the history of the develop-
ment of political economies, we consider globalization and the pressures on nation-states as new cultural
processes emerged and continue to emerge. A key issue is the challenge of human rights in a “globalized”
world, and we discuss cultural imperialism, cultural hybridization, and cosmopolitanism as responses to
this challenge.
In the concluding chapter, we present the idea that anthropology encompasses so much more than what
students will learn in a classroom. Anthropology is about the lives and worlds of the people who gift us with
their world views. It is a portal to effective global citizenship in a world of uncertainty. Finally, anthropology
offers perspective and a way to develop awareness (reflexivity) in order to confront issues and challenge views
on freedom and constraint.

A Final Note
Each new edition of Cultural Anthropology has moved forward in some small and/or large way to illuminate
the trends of the discipline. Nonetheless, what has been constant is the book’s core value: a respect for stu-
dents. Like Emily Schultz and Robert Lavenda, I, too, have taken students seriously. I believe that they have
the capacity to read and think as involved adults. It has been my experience using this book over the years
that students are happy to be seen as capable of the reflexivity this book espouses. Readers may sometimes
complain about or struggle with the content and the concepts, but I have found they can be charmed into
learning as they come to appreciate that the text grounds them in an intellectual, emotional, and practical
perspective that finds resonance in their—quite substantial—understanding of the world. What we offer
are the tools for analysis. Inevitably, students appreciate this book and anthropology as a subject. This book
situates them in a world of change and challenges them to engage the anthropological perspective as an in-
creasingly important tool for effective global citizenship.
This edition is bittersweet for me as I retire from active participation in the classroom while continuing
with some of my field research that I hope to complete in my final years. I speak to you from a life in anthro-
pology and at a time when we are significantly challenged to hold on to our humanity and to our wonderful
home in the stars. The gifts of understanding I have received from others have been magical. The generosities
of many have enriched my professional and personal life and in some small way have come to you through
my contribution to this book.
Sam Anderson, writing in The New York Times Magazine (1 October 2017) on the life and work of the
writer John McPhee, comments, “Learning . . . is a way of loving the world, savoring it, before it is gone. In
the grand cosmology . . . all the earth’s facts touch one other—all its regions, creatures, and eras . . . Every part
of time touches every other part of time” (33, 55).
We are all in this river of time—immersed in the waters of life. Swim!
Acknowledgements
Once again, I want to thank the people I met and worked with in the field who gifted me with their friend-
ship and insights into their lives while teaching me to see their worlds and ways of being human. They have
been my true teachers, and their kind involvement has been a sacred gift. As this book has always inferred,
such generosity helps us face the world with humility, while the study of anthropology situates us in a place
of analysis that fosters the development of humble concern and deep hope. None of this could be possible
without the kindness of others.
I would like to thank, once more, Emily Schultz and Robert Lavenda for providing the foundation upon
which the Canadian editions of Cultural Anthropology have been built and for their ongoing insightful com-
ments on the progress made in the current edition.
In this edition we have included the voices of “new” academics in anthropology. Some recently have
completed their PhDs, and one is in a post-doc position. Others are on the cusp of completion. They are
representative of our future—their voices will keep us aware of our humanity as they continue to gather the
sacred gifts others have to impart.

Alphonse Ndem Ahola, University of Alberta Sarah Jacobs, University of Calgary

David Cooney, Memorial University of Nancy Merrill, University of British Columbia,
Newfoundland Okanagan
Joshua Friesen, McGill University Nhi Ha Nguyen, Queen’s University
Jennifer Glassco, McGill University Michael P. Oman-Reagan, Memorial University of
Geoffrey Hobbis, University of British Columbia, Newfoundland
Okanagan Maxime Polleri, York University
Stephanie Ketterer Hobbis, University of British Judith van Roggen, University of British Columbia,
Columbia, Okanagan Okanagan
Matt Husain, University of British Columbia,
Okanagan

Beyond my sincere thanks to those named above and below (and any I missed), I bid adieu. And to
borrow from sci-fi, our portal to the imagining of future worlds, actual and metaphorical, some words of
hope: “Live long and prosper” (Spock in Star Trek) and “May the force be with you” (Yoda in Star Wars).
The emergent area of futurist anthropology will continue our legacy of supporting our humanity even onto
changing times.
The work could not have proceeded without the exceedingly positive relationship that I developed with
my first editors at Oxford University Press. Here, I note these editors from the years and editions specif-
ically: Caroline Starr, senior acquisitions editor; Peter Chambers, developmental editor, higher education
division; Amanda Maurice, assistant editor, higher education division; and, recently, Janice Evans, senior
editor, higher education division; Rhiannon Wong, assistant editor; and Colleen Ste Marie, copy editor.
Peter worked with me in a sympathetic and supportive fashion on the first two Canadian editions. With-
out his input and the contribution of Amanda Maurice on the first Canadian edition, I could not have worked
through the difficult process of making this book “Canadian” while keeping the tone of the original authors.
xvi Acknowledgements

The second edition became what it was because of Janice Evans, and she continued to provide great assistance
in working through the final processes for the third edition. To her and our new additions to the editorial
team for this book, Tanuja Weerasooriya and Dani Pacey, fell the monumental task of smoothing out the
tone of three voices, setting a better order for the material while reconciling the struggle of the reorganization
of chapters and the adding of new and, at times, controversial materials. By this, the fourth edition, things
had settled to reading the current literature and incorporating as much as possible in such an introductory
text. Here Rhiannon Wong and Colleen Ste Marie became my go-to people—and thankfully so.
All the people thanked in previous editions have their place in this edition as well. I would like to join
the publisher in thanking the following reviewers, as well as those who wish to remain anonymous, whose
thoughtful comments and suggestions helped shape these, now four, Canadian editions:

Hugo De Burgos, University of British Columbia, Carlota McAllister, York University

Okanagan Laurie Milne, Medicine Hat College
Steven Ferzacca, University of Lethbridge Charles R. Menzies, University of British Columbia
Diana French, University of British Columbia, Timothy Panas, University of Saskatchewan
Okanagan David Ryniker, University of British Columbia
David Geary, University of British Columbia, Alan Smart, University of Calgary
Okanagan Pamela Stern, Simon Fraser University
Dawn Grimes-MacLellan, Saint Mary’s University Douglass Drozdow-St Christian, Western University
Nicole Hayes, University of Waterloo Susan Walter, Saint Mary’s University
Chris Holdsworth, University of Calgary Terry Webb, Western University
David Howes, Concordia University Marty Zelenietz, Saint Mary’s University
Magdalena Kazubowski-Houston, Wilfrid Laurier
University

Roberta Robin Dods

From the Publisher
Building on the solid foundation of past editions, this fourth Canadian edition of Cultural Anthropology: A
Perspective on the Human Condition invites students to embark on a journey of cross-cultural comparison.
Featuring ethnographic insight from the experiences of the authors’ own fieldwork as well as from top re-
searchers in Canada and around the world, Cultural Anthropology takes a contemporary and dynamic look
at how human agency, cultural creativity, and the material conditions of everyday life interact to shape cul-
tural practices. This thought-provoking text will inspire students to engage with the world beyond the class-
room, a world that is stunningly diverse, surprisingly similar, and thoroughly human.

Key Features
90 PART II | The Resources of Culture

In Their Own Words

6 | Inequality in the Contemporary World: Class, Caste, Race, Ethnicity, and Nationality 133
Programs for Revitalizing Indigenous Languages in Canada
biological reality, using them to build institutions In this excerpt from research conducted by Esther Usborne, education children receive in school can play a vital role in de-
that include or exclude particular “races.” In this Josephine Peck, Donna-Lee Smith, and Donald M. Taylor on veloping a language and in teaching young students to speak,
way, “race” can become “real” in its consequences, understand, and use a language that is under threat from a
Mi’kmaq language programs in Cape Breton, Nova Scotia, the
even if it has no reality in biology.
researchers discuss the importance of Indigenous language more dominant mainstream language and culture (Baker 2003,
Since the days of colonialism, white domination
programs in Canada. 2006; Cummins 1983, 1986; Fishman 1991, 2001). . . .
of Euro-American and Euro-Canadian racial hier-
archies has been a constant (Figure 6.6). However, For Aboriginal communities in Canada who want to revital-
some researchers who study the cultural construction The celebrated Canadian anthropologist Wade Davis compared ize and/or preserve their language, while at the same time pre-
of whiteness point out that, even in North America, the extinction of a language to the extinction of a species. pare their students for success in mainstream society, having
“whiteness” is not monolithic and that the cultural Davis (2009) argued that “language is an old-growth forest of the Aboriginal language as the principal language of instruc-
© Marc Bruxelle/Alamy Stock Photo

attributes supposedly shared by “white people” have the mind,” and that the death of a language is equivalent to tion appears to be a very promising course of action. Even
varied in different times and places. Some mem- the death of a fertile, intricate, and incredibly valuable way of in communities where the Aboriginal language is not used as
bers of white ruling groups in the southern United being (3). In Canada, Aboriginal languages, once complex ve- the primary means of communication, our research has dem-
States, for example, have traditionally distanced onstrated the benefits of a strong immersion program. These
hicles for communicating rich and unique cultures, are under
themselves from lower-class whites, whom they call
severe threat. Of the 53 Aboriginal languages that are cur- results speak to concerns that educators and parents have
“white trash.” And in South Africa, the meaning of
rently spoken in Canada, only three are thought to have a good about the Mi’kmaq immersion classroom: learning Mi’kmaq
“whiteness” has been complicated by differences of
class and culture separating British South Africans Figure 6.6 The Black Lives Matter movement in downtown Toronto, Canada. chance of survival: Inuktitut, Cree, and Ojibway (Norris 2007). does not have a negative impact on learning English.
from Afrikaners (Hartigan 1997). Moreover, the #BlackLivesMatter was created in 2012 after Trayvon Martin was shot and killed Furthermore, only one in four Aboriginal people in Canada cur- In addition, the results speak to the importance of revitalizing
sharp “caste-like” racial divide between blacks and by George Zimmerman, who was later acquitted of the crime. The movement is rently speak an Aboriginal language (Norris 2007). The Aborig- an Aboriginal language for connecting with one’s culture and iden-
whites in North America has become complicated a call to action against anti-black racism and, largely through social media, has tity. Beyond the transfer of specific language skills, researchers
inal languages that have survived a destructive colonization
by increasing numbers of citizens who identify with been able to draw attention to a number of racial issues that continue today in
process are now increasingly threatened by the rising power argue that education in a heritage language may be particularly
so-called “brown” (Latin American/Hispanic or the United States and Canada. In what ways do racial inequalities continue to
and prevalence of English information technologies and by the important for students’ cultural identity (Cummins 1983, 1986).
South Asian) and “yellow” (Asian) racial categories. be prevalent in Canadian society today?
general dominance of English and French in modern Canadian Wright and Taylor (1995) found that Aboriginal students educated
Diverse researchers recognize that racial categoriza- in their heritage language actually showed increased self- and
society. According to Davis (2009) and others (e.g., Berger
tion and repression take different forms in different
2006; Simon 2010), the revitalization of Aboriginal languages collective-esteem compared to those educated in a second lan-
places. As we shall see, those working in Latin Amer- organized into stratified states. The Aztecs, for ex-
is Human
1 | The Anthropological Perspective on the currentlyCondition
one of Canada’s
13 most important challenges. guage (English or French). This is consistent with other research
ica describe racial practices that do not match those ample, were divided into an upper ruling stratum of
characteristic of the United States and Canada. nobles and a lower, commoner stratum. The Spanish Aboriginal communities in Canada have responded to this showing that understanding one’s cultural identity is important
conquerors also came from a society stratified into challenge and are working towards revitalizing—and in some for psychological well-being (Usborne & Taylor 2010), and that
formed by their genes and cellular chemistry, con-
a system of estates, which were legally recognized cases, re-learning—their Aboriginal tongue. One of the most language learning is an excellent tool for connecting with one’s
Race in Colonial Oaxaca tributes to their capacity to create and use culture.
social categories entitled to a voice in government. Of course, other living species learn, but promising methods of language revitalization is through the Indigenous cultural identity through education (Battiste 2002).
Anthropologist John Chance studied the develop- European estates prototypically included the no- humans’ way of interacting with the wider world is inclusion of the Aboriginal language as a language of instruc-
ment of ideas about “race” and class in the city of bility, the clergy, and the common people. By 1529, distinct for two reasons: tion in schools. In the case of a threatened language, teaching Source: Esther Usborne, Josephine Peck, Donna-Lee Smith, and Donald M.
Oaxaca, Mexico (see EthnoProfile 6.1). Oaxaca African slaves had been brought to New Spain. The young students in this language has been shown to be an ef- Taylor, “Learning through an Aboriginal Language: The Impact on Students’
(known as Antequera during the period of Spanish colonizers in colonial Oaxaca reworked the Euro- 1. Humans’ large, complex brains are capable of English and Aboriginal Language Skills.” Canadian Society for the Study of
fective method of producing more language speakers (Baker Education, Vol. 34, No. 4 (2011), 597–601. Reprinted with permission from the
colonial domination) is a highland city founded in an pean notion of estates to accommodate these new extremely intricate open symbolic thought.
2003, 2006). Research has repeatedly demonstrated that the Canadian Journal of Education.
area that was densely populated, prior to the Span- arrivals by assigning people membership into one 2. Their hands are capable of manipulating matter
ish conquest, by Indigenous people. Chance (1978) or another estate on the basis of their observable in both powerful and delicate ways.
examined how social stratification changed from physical traits, including skin colour.
the period of Spanish conquest, in 1521, to the early In general, the “white” Spanish formed the Being capable of open symbolic thought means statuses and different languages coexist in tension, Anthropologists are also concerned with how
years of the Mexican War of Independence, in 1812. nobility and the clergy; Indigenous groups were that people are able to make sense of their world the study of language ideologies has long been sig- certain forms of communication have come to be
He used an anthropological perspective to interpret merged together to form the common people, and through symbols. For example, consider alphabetic nificant (16). Linguistic anthropologists are par- ideologically privileged over others, specifically
census records, wills, and other archival materials pre- “black” African slaves formed a final layer at the symbols, which are used to represent the sounds of
spoken languages. On a deeper level, the sounds
ticularly well suited to study language ideologies speech and writing. This has led scholars to inves-
served in Mexico and Spain. As a result, he was able bottom of the colonial hierarchy. There were excep- because (1) their linguistic training allows them to tigate other forms of human communication. For
themselves are shared symbols for meanings that
to show that changes occurred both in the categories tions to this system, however. Indigenous nobles describe linguistic features (e.g., phonemes, mor- example, Eric Hoenes del Pinal, working with the
speakers try to express. The fact that human beings
used to describe social groups and in the meanings at- were given special status in post-conquest society
can translate from one language to another sug- phemes, syntax) in detail and (2) their training in Q’eqchi’ Maya peoples, has investigated gesture
tached to those categories, with associated changes in and were used by the colonial administration to gests that the same or similar meanings can be ex- Figure 1.9 A Bedouin woman in Jordan makes bread on the top of an cultural
the dynamics of social stratification itself. control the common people. Moreover, the con-
oil analysis allows them to explain how those as another ideological dimension. Gesture, “like
pressed by different symbols in different languages. drum, which she has reshaped and placed on top of rocks; in the past, she
linguistic features come to be used symbolically by speech, is influenced by cultural values and histor-
When the Spanish arrived in Mexico in 1521, quistadors, who brought no Spanish women with However, people do not use symbols only to form would have used more traditional materials. What might this use of materials
they found a number of Indigenous societies them, soon established sexual relationships with language. Everything people do in society has a sym- tell us about the environment in which this woman lives?
a particular social group. ical tradition, and its usage is adjusted according
bolic dimension, from how they conduct themselves
at the dinner table to how they bury the dead.
To understand the power of culture, anthro-
pologists are also paying increasing attention to
the role played by material culture in the lives of
biocultural human organisms—for example, world-
wide variations in clothing, housing, tools, and tech- sch28528_ch04_075-095.indd 90 01/24/18 03:14 PM
© SEBASTIAN WILLNOW/AFP/Getty Images

sch28528_ch06_124-149.indd 133 01/24/18 05:33 PM

niques for getting and preparing food and making
Canadian focus. A host of Canadian material goods (Figure 1.9). Many cultural anthro-
pologists have traditionally emphasized the way
Expanded coverage
that people’s dealings with artifacts are shaped by
examples, points of view, and issues the cultural meanings they attach to those artifacts.
This emphasis has seemed particularly necessary in of technology, gender and
the face of the widespread assumptions in our own

offer insight into the many ways in North American society that material objects have
obvious functional meanings that are the same for
Figure 1.10 LAN parties allow people to establish a local area network
(LAN) connection between their devices in order to play multi-player video sexuality, health, globalization,
everyone, everywhere. But cultural anthropolo-

which Canadians have contributed

games together. Here gamers participate in a LAN party at the gaming festival
gists have found repeatedly that the same object can
mean different things to different people.
At the same time, innovative theories of ma-
“DreamHack” in Leipzig, Germany. What could cultural anthropologists take
away from these new relationships between persons and technology? and other essential topics.
to the field. Students will also enjoy teriality developed in the fields, called cyborg an-
thropology and science studies, have provided
cultural anthropologists with new ways of con-
with the technology and the other players to form
a seamless hybrid entity (Figure 1.10); similarly, the
symbol Something that
stands for something else.

learning about the breadth and depth ceptualizing relations between persons and things.
Many examples centre on human experiences with
new kinds of things—computers, cellphones, the
technology that links us to friends on Facebook or
Instagram disappears from our awareness. This is
a phenomenon that anthropologist Daniel Miller
material culture Objects
created or shaped by
human beings and given

of anthropological research being calls the humility of things: “objects are important, meaning by cultural
Internet—that are increasingly central to the every-
practices.
day lives of people all over the world. For instance, not because they are evident and physically con-
persons who play online video games seem to join strain or enable, but quite the opposite. It is often

carried out in this country today.

sch28528_ch01_001-025.indd 13 01/24/18 03:08 PM
xviii From the Publisher

13 | A Global World 341

22 PART I | The Tools of Cultural Anthropology

citizens have undermined previous understandings

of human agency—the stuff of people’s dreams and of what nation-states should look like. In addi-
the realm of their potential for growth. tion, they have revealed unacknowledged problems
and weaknesses within certain nation-states. For
example, the existence and strength of transbor-
The Promise of the der states and citizenries show that some nation-
Anthropological Perspective states—especially those sending migrants—are
actually what Schiller and Fouron call apparent
The anthropological perspective on the human states: they have all the outward attributes of nation-
condition is not easy to maintain. It forces people

©James Heatlie Photography/iStockphoto

states—government bureaucracies, armies, a seat at
to question the common-sense assumptions with the United Nations, and so on—but in fact they are
Shawn Goldberg/Shutterstock.com

which they are most comfortable. It increases the unable to meet the needs of their people (2002: 363).
difficulty they encounter when faced with moral The strength of long-distance nationalism and
and political decisions. It does not allow people an transborder citizenries also exposes inconsisten-
easy retreat to ethnocentrism when the going gets cies and paradoxes in the meaning of citizenship.
rough. Once human beings are exposed to the kinds Schiller and Fouron contrast legal citizenship
of experiences that the anthropological undertak- with substantive citizenship. They point out
ing makes possible, they are changed—for better or that, for transborder citizens, these two types of Figure 13.7 Canada Day celebrations from abroad in Trafalgar Square,
Figure 1.15 The Women’s March took place on 21 January 2017, with worse. They cannot easily pretend that these new London, England on 1 July 2017. Hundreds of people came out to celebrate
citizenship do not necessarily coincide. Legal citi-
participation from several Canadian cities and an estimated five million people experiences never happened to them. Once they zenship is granted by state laws and can be difficult Canada’s 150th birthday. Here a crowd enjoys snacks and refreshments at the
marching worldwide. The rallies were in opposition to the political positions of have had a genuine glimpse of “the other” as human for migrants to obtain. But even those transborder Canada Day Bar, including “Nanaimo Bars: The Original,” “La Petite Cabane à
newly elected President Donald Trump and his administration. Besides protest, beings equal to themselves, there is no going back— citizens who obtain legal citizenship often experi- Sucre de Québec,” “Fresh Cooked Waffles and Maple Syrup,” and “Canadian
what other ways do humans demonstrate agency in their lives? except in bad faith. ence a gap between what legal citizenship promises Wild Blueberries.” Would you view the celebration as a form of transborder
So, anthropology is guaranteed to complicate and the way they are treated by the state. For ex- citizenry? Have you seen or experienced other forms of transborder citizenry?
your life. Nevertheless, the anthropological perspec- ample, a state may treat its citizens who have lived
human agency Human such cultural contexts, with their ragged edges and tive can give you a broader understanding of human their entire lives within its borders more favour- Flexible Citizenship among Diasporic legal citizenship The
beings’ ability to exercise rights and obligations of
fuzzy boundaries, human beings must make inter- nature and the wider world—of society, culture, ably than it treats its recently naturalized citizens. Chinese Families
at least some control over citizenship granted by the
their lives.
pretations, formulate goals, and set out in pursuit of and history—and thus help you construct more Substantive citizenship, in contrast, is defined by the In her research on diasporic communities of elite laws of a state.
them. A holistic, dialectical approach to the human realistic and authentic ways of coping with those actions people take to assert their membership in Chinese families, anthropologist Aihwa Ong
condition recognizes the existence and importance complications. substantive citizenship
a state and to bring about political changes to im- (2002 [1999]) has examined the concept of flexible The actions people take,
prove their lives. Some transborder citizenries call citizenship, defined by “the strategies and effects regardless of their legal
citizenship status, to
for the establishment of fully fledged transnational of mobile managers, technocrats, and professionals
assert their membership
nation-states. That is, “they challenge the notion seeking both to circumvent and [to] benefit from in a state and to bring
that relationships between citizens and their state different nation-state regimes by selecting different about political changes
Living Anthropology are confined within that territory,” and they work sites for investment, work, and family relocation” that will improve their
lives.
for the recognition of a new political form that re- (174). This form of citizenship has clear benefits for
Linguistic Belonging: Francophone Communities in Canada’s Northwest Territories
flects the realities of their experiences of national individuals working in business or commerce. transnational nation-states
by Joshua Friesen, PhD Candidate, Anthropology, McGill University identity (Schiller and Fouron 2002: 359). Although the successes of Chinese business- Nation-states in which
the relationships between
The contrast between formal and substantive people are often attributed by outsiders to “Chinese citizens and their states
“Home is where the heart is.” This proverb rings true for many together and to their environment, cultural anthropology aims
citizenship illustrates that traditional, seemingly culture,” Ong’s research challenges this simplistic extend to wherever cit-
people in Canada and elsewhere. But how is a home defined? to understand more about a central feature of the human
straightforward notions of citizenship have begun to explanation. Many Chinese businesspeople have re- izens reside.
And what about the heart? Does this proverb mean that you condition: community.
break down in the context of globalization. While sponded creatively to opportunities and challenges
feel at home wherever you truly desire to be or that your heart Anthropologists have studied belonging and community flexible citizenship
such developments may provide new opportunities they have encountered since the end of the nine- Strategies employed by
is wedded to a particular landscape, a set of social relations, in a variety of ways. Research has been done on the dif-
for some, they create difficulties for others. For ex- teenth century, when Chinese merchants first individuals who regu-
or a tradition? Is the home a social construct that affords ference between spaces and places or on how a physical larly move across state
ample, individuals with complicated or ambiguous became involved in the capitalist economic centres
security, entertainment, and economic opportunity, or is it environment is made over into a cultural landscape with boundaries in order to
citizenship status may have a hard time accessing of European colonial empires in East and Southeast circumvent and benefit
a physical artifact with walls, a roof, and a door? Likewise, particular meanings, resonances, and collectively significant
state-supported social programs (see Clarke 2004; Asia. They succeeded because they were able to culti- from different nation-state
is the heart an embodied sense of attachment, a pumping markers (Low and Lawrence-Zúñiga 2003). Research has
Gledhill 2001). Too often, globalization can have a vate values and practices that allowed them to evade regimes.
organ, or the seat of human emotion? Cultural anthropolo- also been done on the definition and creation of social com-
marginalizing effect on the powerless. As our world or exploit the rules governing three different kinds of
gists investigate these questions all over the world by study- munities (Hobsbawm and Ranger 1992). How a community is
continues to globalize, we must ensure that those in institutions: (1) Chinese kinship and family, (2) the
ing how people create and maintain a sense of belonging represented, symbolized, and memorialized all has an effect
need are not left behind. nation-state, and (3) the marketplace.
in a particular time and place. By asking what binds people on who feels included therein (Anderson 1991).

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New discussions of topics such as cyborg anthropology, virtual realities, transgender identities, Indigenous
sch28528_ch01_001-025.indd 22 01/24/18 03:08 PM

language revitalization, refugee mental health, and visual research methods offer students insight into important
areas of study within anthropology.

1 | The Anthropological Perspective on the Human Condition 11

some anthropologists object to the use of this term

Culture, the Individual, because it suggests a role that is limited to supplying

information for the benefit of the researcher. There-
fore, many contemporary anthropologists choose

and Identity to describe the people they encounter in the field

as partners, participants, consultants, or simply the
people I work with because these terms emphasize
Chapter Outline a relationship of equality based on mutual respect.
Others prefer the term teachers, making it explicit
Perception Personality/Self/Subjectivity
that fieldwork is an active dialogue between the re-
Cognition Sex, Sexuality, and Gender Roles: The Creation of searcher (the student) and the people who are the
Subject Positions experts on their own lives (the teachers). Of course,
Emotion
Motivation
Individual Psychology and Context these experts, like all teachers, also learn and de-
velop new perspectives as they interact with their
students—reciprocity, again!
Learning Objectives
Researchers make written notes (documents)
By the end of Chapter 5, you will be able to • recognize the roles that socialization and even when audio recordings are permitted. The es-
enculturation play in shaping cognitive sential written notes can be augmented significantly
• understand how perception organizes informa-
development; by the use of videos or photographs (Figure 1.8).
tion and frames the “self”;
• consider the “self,” the presentation of self, Indeed, the use of “shadow catching” technologies—
• appreciate cognition as a complex mental pro-
and the self as subject; and Figure 1.8 Anthropologist Ryan Cook continues the anthropological tradition
cess that helps us make sense of our world; devices that capture a visual representation of life—
• understand how sex and gender roles influ- of the use of technology as he videotapes the spectators and ritual performers
• consider that emotion and motivation are in- in the discipline dates back to the earliest period of
ence our sense of identity. at the Popocatépetl volcano in Mexico. How do you think using technology
fluenced by cultural contexts; photography in the nineteenth century. Such photo-
impacts the research process?
graphs have been an invaluable record. In many
cases, however, visual records say more about the
photographer or videographer than about the im- you’ve even encountered media coverage of forensic
age’s content. This notion is well illustrated by some anthropologists, such as Mark Skinner (Simon Fraser
of Franz Boas’s pictures taken for the US National University), who have worked on highly publicized
Museum (see more on this in Chapter 13). Another crime cases or genocide investigations. Although gen-
historical example is photographer Edward Curtis’s erally exposed to less public attention, other areas of
movie In the Land of the War Canoes (1914), which application can also make important contributions
depicts a fictionalized account of the lives of the to social life. For example, when working with a trad-
Kwakiutl (Kwakwaka’wakw) peoples (Northern itionally structured non-Western community, applied
Vancouver Island). anthropologists could
Two related terms for anthropological studies
are ethnography and ethnology. An ethnography is a • use the culture’s ideas about illness and health ethnography
recorded description of a particular group of people’s to introduce useful public-health practices in a An anthropologist’s
recorded description
way of life; ethnology is the comparative study of two way that makes sense to, and will be accepted of a particular group of
or more such groups. Thus, cultural anthropologists by, members of that culture; people’s way of life.
who write ethnographies are sometimes called eth- • place emphasis on health hazards from environ-
ethnology The compara-
nographers, and cultural anthropologists who com- mental contamination (for an example, see tive study of two or more
pare ethnographic information on many different more on Grassy Narrows in Chapter 10); cultures.
cultural practices are sometimes called ethnologists. • draw on the knowledge of traditional social
organization to ease the problems for refugees
trying to settle in a new land; and
Emerging Approaches:
• integrate traditional and Western methods of cul-
Applied Anthropology tivation to help farmers increase their crop yields.
applied anthropology
Applied anthropology could be termed action anthro- The use of information
pology. In applied anthropology, anthropological infor- Anthropologists use their professional train- gathered from the other
mation is put to practical use to propose solutions to ing to seek social justice, eliminate discrimination, anthropological specialties
to solve practical prob-
important problems. You may be familiar with the prac- and support human and cultural rights. In Canada, lems within and between
tical applications of forensic anthropology—perhaps applied anthropologists have frequently acted to cultures.

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sch28528_ch01_001-025.indd 11 01/24/18 03:08 PM

Broad theoretical coverage. The authors bring together traditional anthropological perspectives and cutting-
edge theories to reflect the most recent trends in the discipline. The result is a comprehensive, holistic approach
that sheds new light on standard topics.
 From the Publisher xix

Living Anthropology
Joshua Friesen, “Linguistic Belonging: Francophone Communities in Canada’s
Northwest Territories” 22
Maxime Polleri, “Beyond a Place: Fieldwork as a Concept” 47
Judith van Roggen, “Testimonies of Endurance: Anthropology as History and Witness” 71
Nancy Merrill, “A Case of Thinking Like a Cultural Anthropologist about Digital Literacy” 93
Alphonse Ndem Ahola, “The Invisible Culture” 121
Matt Husain, “Construction of Poverty and Wealth Inequality in the Twenty-First Century” 146
Jennifer Glassco, “Virtual Spaces for Youth Sociality” 181 New “Living
Anthropology” boxes.
David S. Cooney, “Making a Living on Bonavista’s Past: Material Culture as Resource” 210 New end-of-chapter
Sarah Jacobs, “Games and a Look at the Body in Sport” 237 boxes feature insights
on topical issues in
Nhi Ha Nguyen, “States of Precarity: Wellness, Illness, and Refugees’ Mental Health” 270
the field from up-and-
Michael P. Oman-Reagan, “Space Exploration and Planetary Perspectives” 296 coming anthropologists
Stephanie Ketterer Hobbis, “Biometrics and the Quest for Secure Identities” 323 in Canada, highlighting
for students critical
Geoffrey Hobbis, “The Anthropological Cellphone” 355
research being
conducted today.

EthnoProfile

1.1 Dakhleh 9
2.1 Utkuhikhalingmiut (Utku Inuit) 41
3.1 Baule 58
4.1 Samoans 85
5.1 Pitjantjatjara (Anangu) 99
6.1 Colonial Oaxaca (1521–1812) 134
7.1 Ashanti 162
7.2 Ju/’hoansi (!Kung) 164
8.1 Trobriand Islanders 205
“Ethnoprofile” boxes.
9.1 Aymara 216
Brief overviews of
10.1 Grassy Narrows First Nation (Asubpeeschoseewagong Netum Anishinabek) 252 relevant geographic,
11.1 Azande 287 linguistic, demographic,
and organizational
12.1 Tamils 312 information offer
13.1 Kayapó 327 students contextual
information on various
14.1 Saskatoon 365
societies discussed in
the text.
xx From the Publisher

In Their Own Words

Regna Darnell, “Invisible Genealogies” 16 Robin Ridington, Jillian Ridington,

and the Elders of the Dane-zaa First Nations,
Robert Desjarlais and C. Jason Throop,
“The Dane-zaa Creation Story” 230
“Phenomenological Approaches
in Anthropology” 32 Hugo De Burgos, “Indigenous Medicine
and Identity in Nicaragua” 244
Anthony Seeger, “Who’s Studying Whom?” 37
David Garneau, “Responding to Canada’s
Benjamin R. Barber, “Jihad vs McWorld” 43
Truth and Reconciliation
Marc Epprecht, “‘Bisexuality’ and the Politics Commission Report” 258
of Normal in African Ethnography” 67
Arima Mishra, “Critical Medical
Esther Usborne, Josephine Peck, Donna-Lee Anthropology” 268
Smith, Donald M. Taylor, “Programs for
Peter Gose, “House Re-thatching
Revitalizing Indigenous Languages
in an Andean Annual Cycle” 277
in Canada” 90
Roger Keesing, “Custom and Confrontation” 292
Karen Fog Olwig, “The Sociality of Children” 109
Gary M. Feinman and colleagues,
Xinyuan Wang, “Media and Romantic
“Political Hierarchies and Organizational
Relationships in Industrial China” 112
Strategies in the Puebloan Southwest” 306
Susan J. Rasmussen, “The Slave Narrative
John Wagner, “Water as Commodity
in Life History and Myth” 131
in the Okanagan Valley
John S. Matthiasson, “The Emergence of British Columbia” 307
of a New Political Paradigm” 137
Gaynor MacDonald, “Colonizing Processes,
James Brooke, “Dowry Too High. the Reach of the State, and Ontological
Lose Bride and Go to Jail” 158 Violence: Historicizing Aboriginal
Naomi McPherson, “Myth Primogeniture and Australian Experience” 309
Long-Distance Trade-Friends in Northwest Joyce Green, “Canaries in the
New Britain, Papua New Guinea” 174 Mines of Citizenship” 320
Robert Hitchcock, “Land, Livestock, Carolyn Nordstrom, “Global Fractures” 331
and Leadership among the Ju/’hoansi
Kennedy Odede, “Slumdog Tourism” 333
San of North Western Botswana” 187
Steven High, “Embodied Ways of Listening:
Birgit Schmook, Nathalie van Vliet, Claudia
Oral History, Genocide, and
Radel, María de Jesús Manzón-Che, and
the Audio Tour” 337
Susannah McCandless, “Persistence
of Swidden Cultivation in the Face Roberta Robin Dods,
of Globalization: A Case Study from “Diaspora and Identity” 339
Communities in Calakmul, Mexico” 193 Assembly of First Nations, “Open Letter
Daisy Sewid-Smith, “The Continuing to All Political Parties” 346
“In Their Own Reshaping of Our Ritual World John Omohundro, “What Can You Learn
Words” boxes. by Academic Adjuncts” 198 from an Anthropology Major?” 364
Short commentaries
Roberta Robin Dods, “The Mask as ‘Art’?
from experts in the field George Marcus, “Into the Warp and Woof
And as Artifact in a Composed National
provide students with of Multicultural Worlds” 372
Identity” 222
personal insights and The Globe and Mail, “Homes for the
alternative perspectives Smallpox Virus” 374
on key issues.
 From the Publisher xxi

160 PART II | The Resources of Culture

Inequality in the Contemporary Total private households

14,072,080 (100.0%)

World: Class, Caste, Race,

Ethnicity, and Nationality Non-census-family households
4,552,135 (32.3%)
Census-family households
9,519,945 (67.7%)

Chapter Outline
152 PART II | The Resources of Culture One-person households Couples without children
Class Ethnicity 3,627,185 (25.8%)
3,969,795 (28.2%)
Caste Nation and Nationalism
Table 7.2 Opposite-Sex and Same-Sex Couples, with and without Children, Canada, 2011 Multigenerational households
Race Non-census-family households
403,810 (2.9%)
Opposite-Sex Couples Female Couples of two or more
Male persons
Couples
Without children 3,694,400 24,305 582,345 33,855
(4.1%)
Learning Objectives Couples with children
With children 4,102,880 5,075 1,340
3,728,375 (26.5%)
By the end of Chapter 6, you will be able to • discuss how issues of inequality relate to Total 7,797,280 29,380 35,195
nationalism.
• identify aspects of social stratification Other family households
Source: Adapted from Statistics Canada. 2013. “2011 Census of Canada.”
resulting in class and caste structures; 510,380 (3.6%)
• consider and challenge various concepts of
race, ethnicity, and nationalism; and
Lone-parent families
Marriage as a Social Process Marriage Act, which legally recognized same-sex
1,250,190 (8.9%)
We use the term marriage to define the alliances marriage. More recently, in 2015 the United States
and essential social roles that establish and reinforce legalized same-sex marriage in all states although it
Figure 7.5 Overview of Household Types, Canada, 2016.
rights and obligations at the core of social life. Look- remains a somewhat contested issue.
Source: Statistics Canada. 2017. Infographic 1. Overview of Household Types, Canada, 2016. Ottawa: Statistics Canada, available from www.statcan.gc.ca/daily-quotidien/170802/g-
ing at the variety of alliances that we subsume under Post-marital living arrangements may reflect the
a001-eng.htm
the term marriage allows us to see such alliances as a role each partner is expected to adopt in familial and
social process. Our frames of reference now expand social relationships (see Table 7.3). In many societies,
beyond traditional Western definitions (Lamphere the partnerstheir are expected to live with
father’s favour, a specific
and each mother set oftries to protect Extended, Joint, and Blended Families
2005) (Figure 7.1). Roles evolve as societal norms family members. Such arrangements,
the interests of her own children, traditionally sometimes at the Some societies have expanded definitions of the cen-
change with changing times. For example, before called “residence expense rules”
of her by co-wives’
anthropologists,children. suggest tral family unit. Two traditional examples are the
Bill 16 was passed in 1964, a woman extended
who entered family
how that cultureAmong understands
the Mende family bonds.
of Sierra LeoneThis(see Map 7.4), extended family and the joint family. In an extended
marriage in Quebec lost her status as an Aindependent
family pattern mademay take onco-wives
alternative comemeanings
to compete for thosewithliving
eachin other. Bledsoe family, the role each member plays in the family dy-
adult unless she had a previously arrangedup oflegal con-
three transnational
generations situations,
(1993) explains suchthatas this
thosecompetition
living in refu- is often focused namic is tied to his or her position as child, parent,
living together: parents,
tract, similar to what we would call a “prenup” (i.e., gee camps and forced to leave the place defined as
married children, and on how many children each wife has and how likely and/or grandparent. In a joint family, the dynamic
a prenuptial agreement) today. A married woman “home.” Here “. . . notions of continuity and belong-
grandchildren. it is that each child will obtain things of value, es- is less constant since it is composed of, for example, a
under Quebec’s Civil Code could not inherit prop- ing are continuously negotiated in relation to pro-
joint family
pecially education. Mothers depend on the income father and his married sons, as well as the sons’ wives
bridewealth The transfer erty, open a bank account, or sign her children into cesses
A family pat-of change” (Pedersen 2011: 15). Living away
of certain symbolically tern made up of brothers that a child may earn to support her. Education often and children. Upon the death of the father, the eldest
hospital for treatment; these “rights” were reserved from the daily activities, routines, and institutions
requires a significant cash outlay, and a man may be son inherits the position as household head. His
Vibrant four-colour
important goods from the and their wives (or sisters
family of the groom to the for her husband. Since 1964, due in large and their to of “home”
parthusbands) along is very difficult and requires physical and
able to send only one child to school, or he may be younger brothers may not accept his authority as read-
family of the bride, repre- social changes supporting women’s equality, women
with their childrenpsychological
and resources, without which maintaining
senting compensation to sometimes their parents able to send one child to a prestigious private school ily as they did their father’s, and they may decide to
in Quebec have shared these rights with their hus- social bonds may be nearly impossible (16–17).
the wife’s lineage for the
loss of her labour and for
child-bearing capacities.
bands. In 2005, Canada saw further
living together.
changes to the Some
definition of marriage with the passing of the Civil to develop specifically
only if he
cultures
These economic
sends another to a trade apprenticeship. establish separate households with the hope of starting
use forms of creative marriage
needed realities
social can lead to bitter feuds— their own joint families. Something similar happens
relationships.
design. A wide array of
and even
Evans-Pritchard (1951) divorce—as
describedco-wivestwo such blameforms the husband for among the polyandrous Nyinba discussed earlier. A
disparities
among the Nuer of EastinAfrica
To avoid
century. In the first form,
the accomplishments
in the early twentieth
theseaproblems,
woman could childrenmarry
of their children. group of brothers may take a second wife. At first, all
arean-frequently sent brothers have equal sexual access to both wives, but in photos, illustrations,
other woman to and
live become
with relatives
the “father”who will of thesend them to school. time they tend to form groups around each wife, even-
wife’s

blended family A we
children. ToAlso important
understand thisaresort
the rights
must distinguish between pater (social father Husbands
family positions of leadership from
to inherit property and tually choosing to split the household in two.
of arrangement,
the father. In recent decades in North America, anthro- maps, tables, and
created when previously try to
role) and genitor avoid overt signs provider but wives pologists have become more interested in the increase
of favouritism,
graphs helps bring
(biological father or sperm
divorced or widowed
are ranked
role). To establish by order the
the marriage, of marriage
female husband and by the status of in the blended family. From a historical perspective,
people marry, bringing
with them children(the their natal (birth) families,
frompater) gave the bride’s lineage cattle as bride- and such rankings lay the such families can be recognized in European folk
groundwork Then, aformale rivalries. tales, now termed fairy tales—consider Cinderella
anthropology to life!
wealth payments.
their previous marriages. kinsman, friend, or
neighbour (the genitor) impregnated the wife and
contributed labour by performing tasks considered
© Dinodia Photos/Alamy Stock Photo

sch28528_ch06_124-149.indd 124 01/24/18 05:33 PM to be men’s work. The female husband played the
social role of a man. She could marry several women
if her 160
sch28528_ch07_150-183.indd wealth permitted, and she could demand 01/24/18 05:36 PM
damage payment if any wife engaged in sexual activ-
ity (adultery) without her consent. She was the pater
of her wives’ children, who were of her patrilineage
Figure 7.1 Couples wait for their turn during a mass wedding ceremony (an and called her “father.” She administered her com-
event in which many couples are married at the same time) in Navi Mumbai, India. pound and her herds as any male head of household

sch28528_ch07_150-183.indd 152 01/24/18 05:36 PM

272 PART II | The Resources of Culture

(2) the patient may recover regardless of the interven- simply because the patient believes that it will be ef-

States of Being
tions taken by caregivers because the disease/illness/ fective; and (4) treatments may be ineffective, in some
injury was, in effect, self-correcting or self/healing; cases leading to the death of the patient.
(3) the placebo effect may work to bring about a cure,

in Wellness and Illness Critical Thinking Questions

by Roberta Robin Dods
1. How is the medical system in Canada an externalizing regions of the world? What can be done about dispar-
system? What evidence can you find of internalizing ap- ities within relatively affluent nations?
Chapter Outline
Medical Anthropology Environments and Well-Being
proaches to wellness in Canada? How can these two ap-
proaches complement one another?
4. Anthropologist Bruce Lincoln has observed that the human
body in sickness transcends its individual psychological Engaging learning
2. What are the links between environmental contamina- and physical vulnerability, becoming the “site where social
Beyond the Science–Tradition Divide
Integrated Approaches and Holism in Med-
Health-Care Delivery Systems
Epidemiology and Public Health
tion and health? How important are efforts to clean up
contaminated environments and prevent contamination
pressures and tensions are experienced most acutely”
and various community “contradictions and lacerations
tools. Learning
in the future? that divide a community” are played out (2001: 791). How
objectives, marginal
ical Anthropology Integrated, Applied Critical Medical An-
3.
10 How do socioeconomic
| States and geopolitical
of Being in Wellness disparities271
and Illness affect have social pressures and tensions factored into your own
Cultural Interpretations and Labels of Ill- thropology: Holism in the Service of
treatment options? Why are wealthier nations often slow experiences with disease and illness? How might Lincoln’s
ness and Disease Wellness

definitions of key
to act in response to the health crises in less affluent observations relate to an epidemic within a community?

there has not been a comparative study of refugees’ mental been an increase in refugees admitted on the basis of health
Learning Objectives health before and after their arrival, nor has there been a reli- Suggested Readings
problems (Fassin 2005), returning us to the humanitarian
By the end of Chapter 10, you will be able to • consider howable health-care
human wellnesssystem
ness are affectedFollowing
and ill- for them in the countries of asylum.
Kleinman’s call for a more involved anthropol-
by three interacting
basis for resettlement in the 1951 Convention (UNHRC 2017).
Berkes,
The lack of Fikret, Peter structure
psychiatric George, Richard Preston, and
to accommodate refu-John Mintz, Sidney W., and Christine M. Du Bois. 2002. “The
terms, critical thinking
• understand that medical anthropology Turner. 1992.needs, “The Cree Anthropology of Food and Eating,” Annual Review of An-
and View
socialof barriers
Land and Resources:
questions, annotated
environments:ogytheofbiotic
mental health (2012),
(biological), the refugees’ experience can cer- gees’ mental-health surround-
draws on many disciplines to study Indigenous
abiotic (physical), and the cultural;ethnographic
tainly benefit from and inquiries. In anthropological ing mental illnesses Ecological Knowledge,”
in contemporary countries report prepared
of asylum, is for thropology 31: 99–119. This article links diverse areas of
well-being, health, illness, and disease; (Technology Assessment in Subarctic Ontario), research, including food security and social change. The
• consider theterminology,
various social, refugees
cultural,are persons who, having undergone a indeed aTASO
form of structural violence. This concern for refugees’
• appreciate the importance of trad-

suggestions for further

violent rite of separation
personal, economic, and political fac- (cf. Turner 1967), are caught in a Second
mental health Series,a no.
presents 8 (Hamilton:
valuable opportunity McMaster University).
for anthropology authors note that much remains to be done in examining
itional knowledge and biomedical An interesting paper that discusses the traditional values nutritional practices in many areas of the world.
liminal,
tors that affect how in-between state prior to resettlement in countries of
illness is under- to discuss two topical issues: (1) mental health-care systems
knowledge in the management of well- of the James andBay (2)
Cree Rylko-Bauer, Barbara, and Paul Farmer. 2002. “Managed
stood and howasylum.
healthBeing a refugee
care is provided.does not automatically imply mental in countries of origin, thewith respect
many to their
difficulties land base and
in continuing

reading, lists of related

ness and illness; the resources Care or Managed Inequality? A Call for Critiques of
illnesses; nevertheless, such issues are prevalent enough that medical health care for they use (animals,
pre-settlement fish, and
refugees birds). of
in countries
the French government, for instance, requires physicians’ cer- asylum.Dods, Roberta
Is this Robin.
not why 2004. “Knowing
anthropology exists—for Ways/Ways
its unique of in-
Know- Market-Based Medication,” Medical Anthropology Quar-
tificates affirming a physical and psychological basis for flee- sight intoing:
the Reconciling
human condition,Science and Tradition,”
mediated Worldforces
by institutional Archaeol- terly 16, 4: 476–502. This paper challenges us to consider
ing persecution (Fassin and d’Halluin 2005). There has indeed ogy 36, 4:infrastructures?
and sociopolitical 547–57. This paper discusses the structure of
traditional ecological knowledge and Western scientific
the actual cost of care managed by corporations that base
decisions on potential profits. websites, and an
knowledge, concluding that both forms of knowledge offer Stephenson, Peter H. 2001. “Expanding Notions of Culture
access to important information and that the greatest in-
sight can come when they are combined.
and Ethics in Health and Medicine to Include Marginal-
ized Groups: A Critical Perspective,” Anthropologica
end-of-book glossary
Farmer, Paul. 2005. Pathologies of Power: Health, Human 43, 1: 3–17. A nuanced and historically contextualized

Key Terms
Rights, and the New War on the Poor (Berkeley: University
of California Press). A highly respected text in which Paul
paper that examines the ethical challenges involved in
practising medicine—both Western and traditional—in a
encourage students to
actively engage with
Farmer investigates the many intersections between pol- globalizing world.
abiotic 251 ethnomedical systems 243 itics andrealized
health care.
niche 252 Van Esterik, Penny. 2002. “Contemporary Trends in Infant
bioaccumulation 253 etiology 246 Mackie, Gerry.shaman 2003. 245“Female Genital Cutting: A Harmless Feeding Research,” Annual Review of Anthropology 31:
biomagnification 253
biomedicine 242
biotic 251
folk illness 249
health 242
illness 242
Practice?”
2: 135–58.
and consent
sickness
Medical242
Thistrauma
social
Anthropology Quarterly, New Series 17,
article discusses
in the violence
structural
256
context of 255
issues of self-determination
cultural relativism.
257–78. An informative investigation into health and nutri-
tion concerns related to infant care and feeding. what they are reading
culture-bound syndromes 242
defensive research 254
managed care 264
medical anthropology 242
suffering 242
traditional knowledge 242
Related Websites
and explore resources
disease 242 placebo effect 260 well-being 242
epidemiology 265 positive research 254
Centre for Global Mental Health
www.centreforglobalmentalhealth.org
Health Canada: First Nations and Inuit Health
www.hc-sc.gc.ca/fniah-spnia/index-eng.php
beyond the text to
Chapter Summary
enhance their learning
1. Medical anthropology is highly interdisciplinary, draw-
ing on and influencing such diverse fields as biology,
3. Medical anthropologists are aware that physical (biotic
and abiotic), social, and cultural environments can
experience.
ecology, biochemistry, sociology, psychology, political have a dramatic impact
sch28528_ch10_240-273.indd
272
on human well-being. Within 01/24/18 06:00 PM
sch28528_ch10_240-273.indd 240 01/24/18 06:00 PM
science, economics, linguistics, ethics, and religious every environment, all components are linked in com-
studies. Thus, medical anthropologists value integrated plex, often indivisible ways. Thus, researchers exam-
approaches and holism in their work, and they are always ine the influence of environments—especially realized
open to a variety of perspectives. niches—on human health. Two areas of particular inter-
2. Medical anthropologists recognize the tension between est are environmental contamination and access to a
traditional knowledge and Western scientific know- balanced diet.
ledge, but they also recognize that the two approaches 4. Health-care systems take many different forms around
intersect in many ways. In the past, the systems were the world. Yet medical anthropologists recognize four
depicted as being in opposition to each other, but con- outcomes of medical treatment that occur cross cul-
temporary medical anthropologists try to move beyond turally, regardless of the approach to effecting a cure:
“either/or” interpretations. (1) the treatment may cause the patient to recover;

sch28528_ch10_240-273.indd 271 01/24/18 06:00 PM

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