Lower Palaeolithic Age

Definitions
●​ Human Species: Homo erectus.
●​ Key Fossil: Narmada Man, Sivapithecus sivalensis, partial skull cap,
●​ Pre-history: Events before writing, Stone Ages.
Hathnora, Madhya Pradesh, 1982, oldest hominin fossil in India,
●​ Proto-history: Between prehistory and history, writing known,
Archaic Homo sapiens.
scripts undeciphered, Harappan script, Vedic oral tradition
●​ Key Sites:
(1500–600 BC).
○​ Soan Valley, Punjab, Pakistan: Early Palaeolithic site.
●​ History: Study of past after writing, based on written and
○​ Belan Valley, Mirzapur, Uttar Pradesh: Palaeolithic,
archaeological sources.
Mesolithic evidence, early microlithic tools.
○​ Athirampakkam, Pallavaram, Gudiyam, near Chennai:
Indian Stone Age Divisions Acheulian tradition, hand axes, cleavers.
○​ Hunsgi Valley, Isampur, Karnataka: Acheulian toolmaking
●​ Palaeolithic Age: 5,00,000–10,000 BCE. sites.
●​ Mesolithic Age: 10,000–6000 BCE. ○​ Bhimbetka, Madhya Pradesh: UNESCO site, rock shelters,
●​ Neolithic Age: 6,000–1000 BCE. Palaeolithic evidence.
●​ Lifestyle: Nomadic, hunters-gatherers, hunted animals, gathered
Palaeolithic Age roots, nuts, fruits, ate predator-killed animals.
●​ Animal Fossils:
●​ Meaning: Old Stone Age, stone tool use. ○​ Narmada Valley: Elephas namadicus, Stegodon Ganesa,
●​ Time Frame: 3.3 million years ago–11,650 BP, end of Pleistocene/Ice Bos namadicus, Equus namadicus.
Age. ○​ Attirampakkam: Equus, Water Buffalo, Nilgai, 17 hoof
●​ Human Ancestors: Homo erectus, migrated from Africa, prints.
hunters-gatherers, caves/rock shelters, used fire later. ●​ Tools: Hand axes, choppers, cleavers, discovered by Robert Bruce
●​ Tools: Unpolished stones, hand axes, cleavers, choppers, blades, Foote, Pallavaram, 1863, Acheulian (Central/South-East India),
burins, scrapers, quartzite tools, Quartzite men. Sohanian (Northwest, Soan Valley).
●​ Sub-Phases: ●​ Cognitive Skills: Tools with physical symmetry, high cognitive
○​ Lower Palaeolithic: 20,00,000–60,000 BP. capabilities.
○​ Middle Palaeolithic: 3,85,000–40,000 BP.
○​ Upper Palaeolithic: 40,000–10,000 BP.

Middle Palaeolithic Age

●​ Technology: Advances in lithic technology, flake industry

predominant.
●​ Key Discovery: H.D. Sankalia, Pravara River, Nevasa, Maharashtra.
●​ Human Species: No hominin fossils in India, Neanderthals in ○​ Gujarat: Langhnaj.
Eurasia, 400,000–40,000 years ago. ○​ Uttar Pradesh: Baghor II, Chopani Mando, Sarai Nahar
●​ Distribution: Narmada, Godavari, Krishna, Yamuna, south of Rai, Mahadaha, Damdama.
Tungabhadra, Soan Valley. ○​ Karnataka: Sankanakallu, Kibbanahalli.
●​ Tools: Smaller tools, scrapers, points, borers, knives on flakes, chert, ○​ Madhya Pradesh: Lekhakia, Baghai Khor, Adamgarh,
jasper, chalcedony, quartz, reduced hand axe use. Bhimbetka.
●​ Lifestyle: Hunter-gatherers, open-air, cave, rock shelter sites. ○​ Coastal: Mumbai, Thoothukudy, Tamil Nadu,
Visakhapatnam.
Upper Palaeolithic Age ●​ Lifestyle: Subsistence hunting-gathering, late domestication,
plants/animals, used fire, roasted food.
●​ Human Species: Modern humans, Homo sapiens, from Africa, ●​ Domestic Animals: Cattle, sheep, goats, pigs, dogs, Kanewal,
300,000 years ago, Asia by 60,000 years ago. Loteshwar, Ratanpur, Gujarat, Adamgarh, Bhimbetka, camel bones,
●​ Sites: Kanewal.
○​ Karnataka: Meralbhavi. ●​ Tools: Microliths, hunting smaller animals/birds.
○​ Andhra Pradesh: Kurnool Caves, Jwalapuram. ●​ Art: Chert stone, geometric engravings, Chandravati, Rajasthan,
○​ Telangana: Godavarikhani. bone/tooth engravings, Bhimbetka, rock paintings, Bhimbetka,
○​ Madhya Pradesh: Baghor I, III, Son Valley, Bhimbetka, Raisen, Pachmarhi, South Mirzapur, hunting, fishing, dancing.
Bhopal. ●​ Burials: Burials, grave goods, Mahadaha, Damdama, Sarai Nahar
○​ Maharashtra: Patne. Rai, Mahadaha, man-woman burial, ivory pendant.
○​ Jharkhand: Chotanagpur Plateau. ●​ Huts: Oval/circular huts, wattle-daub traces, Chopani Mando,
●​ Artifacts: Ostrich eggshells, Bhimbetka, Patne, 25,000 BP, incised Damdama, Bagor, Tilwara.
eggshells, shell/stone beads, Jwalapuram, Patne.
●​ Art: Green paintings, Bhimbetka, shrine-like structure, Baghor,
Uttar Pradesh, earliest in India, sandstone block, rubble circle.
●​ Tools: Blade, bone tools, microliths, silica-rich materials, bone tools,
faunal remains, Kurnool Caves. Neolithic Age
●​ Lifestyle: Caves, open-air spaces, increased cognitive capability.
●​ Start: 10,000 BC, agriculture, animal domestication.
●​ Regions: Egypt, Mesopotamia, Indus, Ganges, China.
Mesolithic Age
●​ Tools: Polished stone, stone axes, microlith blades.
●​ Sites:
●​ Time Frame: Post-Ice Age to Neolithic, varies globally, Levant:
○​ Northwest India, now Pakistan: Mehrgarh, Rana Ghundai,
20,000–9500 BC.
Sarai Kala, Jalilpur.
●​ Climate: Global warming, mobile groups, monsoon pattern,
○​ Kashmir: Burzahom.
freshwater lakes, Didwana, Rajasthan, dry deciduous forests.
●​ Sites:
○​ Bihar: Paisra.
 ○​ Ganges Valley/Central India: Lehuradeva, Chopani Munda, ●​ Artifacts: Wild dog bone, antler horn, stone engraving, hunting
Koldiwa, Mahagara, Uttar Pradesh, Chirand, Senuwar, scene, dog, sun.
Bihar. ●​ Phases: Aceramic, no ceramics, Ceramic, pottery.
○​ East India: Birbhanpur, Chirand, Kuchai, Golbaisasan, ●​ Trade: Contemporary, Harappa, evidence of trade.
Sankarjang, Bihar, West Bengal.
○​ South India: Sanganakallu, Tekkalakota, Brahmagiri, Ganges Valley/Central India
Maski, Piklihal, Watkal, Hemmige, Hallur, Karnataka,
Nagarjunakonda, Ramapuram, Veerapuram, Andhra ●​ Rice Cultivation: Lehuradeva, 6500 BC.
Pradesh, Paiyyampalli, Tamil Nadu. ●​ Crops: Hulled/six-row barley, wheat, rice, pea, green gram,
○​ Northeast India: Daojali Hading, Sarutaru, Assam, Garo gram/chicken pea, mustard, flax/linseed, jackfruit.
Hills. ●​ Animals: Sheep, goats, cattle, wild animal bones.
●​ Pottery: Cord-marked pottery.
Mehrgarh
East India
●​ Time: 7000–3500 BC.
●​ Phase 1, 7000–5500 BC: No pottery, six-row barley, emmer/einkorn ●​ Tools: Pointed butt, celts, chisels, shouldered axes.
wheat, jujube, ilanthai, dates, domesticated sheep, goats, cattle, ●​ Sites: Birbhanpur, Chirand, Kuchai, Golbaisasan, Sankarjang.
semi-nomadic, mud houses, burials, ornaments, sea shells,
limestone, turquoise, lapis lazuli, sandstone. South India
●​ Phase 2, 5500–4800 BC: Pottery, terracotta figurines, glazed
faience beads. ●​ Tools: Stone axes, blades, fire-baked earthen figurines, cattle
●​ Phase 3, 4800–3500 BC: Long-distance trade, lapis lazuli, keeping.
Badakshan. ●​ Sites: Utnur, Palvoy, Andhra Pradesh, Kodekal, Kupgal, Budihal,
●​ Dentistry: Earliest evidence, drilling human tooth, Mehrgarh. Karnataka, ash mounds, granite hills, river valleys, Godavari,
Krishna, Pennaru, Tungabhadra, Kaveri.
●​ Crops: Ragi, horse gram.

Kashmir, Burzahom Northeast India

●​ Features: Pit dwellings, oval, wide bottom, narrow top, bone/stone ●​ Time: 2500–1500 BC.
tools, menhirs, redware pottery, copper arrowheads, black ware, ●​ Tools: Shouldered axes, splayed celts.
agate/carnelian beads, painted pottery. ●​ Agriculture: Shifting cultivation, yams, taro.
●​ Agriculture: Wheat, barley, common pea, lentil, Central Asian
contact, lentil.
●​ Features: Stone/wooden memorials, dead, Austro-Asiatic ●​ Limitations: High infant mortality, limited copper supply, no bronze
languages. tools.

Chalcolithic Period Ochre Coloured Pottery Ware

●​ Start: 2600–1200 BC, copper, stone tools, Pre-Harappan cultures. ●​ Time: 2600–1200 BC.
●​ Tools: Stone axes, stone blades, copper objects, flat axes, bangles, ●​ Region: Indo-Gangetic plain.
rings, antimony rods, knives. ●​ Features: Rural, copper hoard culture, wattle-and-daub houses,
●​ Sites: copper/terracotta ornaments, animal figurines.
○​ South-eastern Rajasthan: Ahar, no stone axes/blades, ●​ Agriculture: Wheat, rice, bajra, pulses, lentil, black/green gram,
Gilund, stone-blade industry, Ganeshwar, copper supply, glass pea.
Harappa. ●​ Regional Crops: Eastern India, rice, Western India, barley, wheat,
○​ Western Madhya Pradesh: Kayatha, Eran, Malwa, Deccan, cotton, ragi, bajra, millets.
Navdatoli, Narmada.
○​ Uttar Pradesh: Allahabad, near Vindhyas. Iron Age
○​ Western Maharashtra: Jorwe, flat/rectangular copper
axes, Nevasa, Daimabad, Chandoli, copper chisels, ●​ North India: 1100–800 BC.
Songaon, Inamgaon. ●​ South India: No distinct timeline, Neolithic burial practices,
○​ Eastern India: Chirand, Ganga, Pandu Rajar Dhibi, Megalithic period.
Mahishdal, West Bengal.
○​ Andhra Pradesh: Kodekal, Utnur, Nagarjunakonda,
Megalithic Sites
Palavoy.
●​ Pottery: Black-and-red ware, wheel-based, white linear designs,
●​ Adichanallur, Tamil Nadu: Burial mound, iron objects, gold diadems,
channel-spouted pots, dishes-on-stand, bowls-on-stand, Madhya
pottery, urn burials, 1000 BCE–300 CE.
Pradesh, Maharashtra.
●​ Paiyampalli, Vellore, Tamil Nadu: Black-and-red ware, iron
●​ Economy: Hunting, agriculture, early metallurgy.
implements, beads, urn burials, 1000 BCE–300 CE.
●​ Houses: Mud bricks, wattle-and-daub, thatched, silos, grain
●​ Kodumanal, Erode, Tamil Nadu: Pit/urn/chamber burials, iron tools,
storage, large mud houses, circular pit houses, Inamgaon.
carnelian/quartz beads, 1000 BCE–300 CE.
●​ Arts/Crafts: Copper smelting, painted pottery, spinning/weaving,
●​ Brahmagiri, Karnataka: Stone circle burials, iron tools, ornaments,
microliths.
red-and-black ware, cist burials, 1000 BCE–200 CE.
●​ Burials: Maharashtra, north-south, extended, West Bengal,
●​ Hirebenkal, Karnataka: Largest megalithic site, pottery, iron tools,
post-extraction/fractional, under house floors.
figurines, dolmenoid cists, menhirs, 800 BCE–200 CE.
●​ Religion: Terracotta figurines, mother goddess, stylized bulls,
●​ Maski, Karnataka: Mentions Ashoka, iron implements,
Malwa/Rajasthan.
black-and-red ware, cist burials, 1000 BCE–300 CE.
●​ Society: Social inequalities, grave goods variation, Chandoli,
Nevasa.
●​ Sangarampet, Andhra Pradesh: Cist/dolmen burials, stone tools, 7.​ Gupta Period Pottery: 300–600 CE, fine red ware, stamped/molded
pottery, dolmenoid cists, 1000 BCE–300 CE. designs, Mathura, Nalanda
●​ Hallur, Karnataka: Early iron use, pottery, iron implements, cist
burials, 1000 BCE–200 CE.
●​ Porkalam, Kerala: Stone circles, urn burials, pottery, beads, iron
implements, 1000 BCE–300 CE.
●​ Amritamangalam, Tamil Nadu: Stone/cairn burials, iron objects, Indus Valley Civilization
beads, cairn burials, 1000 BCE–300 CE.
●​ Jorwe, Maharashtra: Chalcolithic-Megalithic continuity, Introduction
black-and-red ware, copper objects, pit/urn burials, 1400 BCE–700
CE. ●​ Appeared: Northwestern India, Pakistan, third millennium BC.
●​ Chandravalli, Karnataka: Megalithic settlements, pottery, ●​ First phase: Urbanisation in India.
copper/iron implements, pit burials, 1000 BCE–200 CE. ●​ Neolithic villages: Beginnings at Mehrgarh, Balochistan, Pakistan,
●​ Junapani, Maharashtra: Stone circle graves, pottery, iron ~7000 BC.
implements, beads, 1000 BCE–300 CE.
●​ Gufkral, Kashmir: Neolithic-Megalithic transition, stone tools,
pottery, pit burials, 2000 BCE–1000 BCE. Phases of Harappan Culture
●​ Rajankolur, Karnataka: Dolmens, cairn burials, iron tools, pottery,
dolmens, 800 BCE–200 CE. ●​ Early Harappan (Regionalisation), 3300–2600 BC: Harappa, Kot Diji,
●​ Nagarjunakonda, Andhra Pradesh: Cairn/dolmen burials, pottery, Amri; fortification, grid planning, incipient trade, craft
beads, iron tools, cairn/dolmenoid cists, 200 BCE–300 CE. specialisation.
●​ Transitional Phase: Kunal, Dholavira, Harappa; increased craft
specialisation, organised irrigation, standardised pottery designs.
Pottery Cultures ●​ Mature Harappan (Integration), 2600–1800 BC: Mohenjo-Daro,
Harappa, Kalibangan, Dholavira; full-scale urbanisation, writing,
1.​ Ochre Coloured Pottery Ware: 2600–1200 BCE, rural, copper hoard, uniform artefacts, full-fledged trade.
Indo-Gangetic plain. ●​ Late Harappan (Localisation), Post 1800–1300 BC: Cemetery at
2.​ Black-and-Red Ware: 2600–1000 BCE, wheel-based, white designs, Harappa, Siswal, Rojdi, Rangpur; decline, site abandonment, rise of
Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra. pastoral mode.
3.​ Painted Grey Ware: 1200–600 BCE, early Vedic, grey pottery,
geometric designs, Hastinapur, Ahichchhatra.
4.​ Northern Black Polished Ware: 700–200 BCE, luxury, glossy black, Geographical Extension
Pataliputra, Taxila.
5.​ Red Ware with Ochre Wash: 300 BCE–200 CE, storage, simple ●​ North: Shortugai, Afghanistan.
designs, Vidarbha, Gujarat. ●​ West: Sutkagendor, Pakistan–Iran border.
6.​ Black/Buff Ware: 200 BCE–300 CE, utility pottery, Central/South ●​ East: Alamgirpur, Uttar Pradesh, India.
India. ●​ South: Daimabad, Maharashtra, India.
 ●​ Core areas: Pakistan, Gujarat, Rajasthan, Haryana. ○​ Three parts: citadel, middle town, lower town.
○​ Fortified settlement, internal walls.
●​ Surkotada, Gujarat:
Important Sites and Features
○​ Oval grave, pot burials.
●​ Kalibangan, Rajasthan, Luni River:
●​ Harappa, Punjab, Pakistan, Ravi River:
○​ Bangle factory.
○​ First discovered IVC site, named after it.
○​ Ploughed field surface.
○​ Two rows, six granaries.
○​ Camel bones, fire altars.
○​ Male torso, red sandstone.
○​ Bronze bull figure.
○​ Stone symbols: lingam, yoni.
●​ Banawali, Haryana, Rangoi River:
○​ Mother goddess, dice.
○​ Pre-Harappan, Mature, Late Harappan centre.
●​ Mohenjo-Daro, Sindh, Pakistan, Indus River:
○​ Oval-shaped settlement.
○​ Post-cremation burial.
○​ Barley grains, lapis lazuli.
○​ Great Granary, largest building.
○​ Fire altars.
○​ Great Bath, largest structure.
○​ No systematic drainage, radial streets.
○​ Seal: Pashupati, mother goddess.
●​ Ropar, Punjab, Sutlej River:
○​ Bronze: Dancing Girl, buffalo, bearded man.
○​ First site excavated post-independence.
○​ Planned town, citadel, lower town.
○​ Dog buried with human, oval pit burials.
●​ Chanhu-Daro, Sindh, Pakistan, Indus River:
○​ Copper axe.
○​ Craft production: bead-making, shell-cutting,
●​ Rakhigarhi, Haryana:
metalworking, seal-making, weight-making.
○​ Largest IVC site, two mounds discovered ~2016.
○​ Dog’s paw imprint, brick.
○​ All three Harappan phases.
○​ Terracotta: bullock cart model.
●​ Rangpur, Gujarat, Madar River:
○​ Bronze toy cart.
○​ Pre-Harappan, Mature Harappan remains.
●​ Lothal, Gujarat, Bhogava-Sabarmati confluence:
○​ Yellow, grey pots, pre-Harappan.
○​ Naval trade site, port, dockyard.
●​ Alamgirpur, Uttar Pradesh, Hindon River:
○​ Granaries, rice husk.
○​ Late Harappan.
○​ Double burial: male, female.
○​ Broken copper blade, cloth impression on trough.
○​ Citadel: built at height, not walled.
●​ Daimabad, Maharashtra, Pravara River:
○​ Fortified settlement, internal walls.
○​ Bronze images: charioteer, chariot, ox, elephant,
●​ Dholavira, Gujarat, Luni River:
rhinoceros.
○​ UNESCO World Heritage Site.
●​ Kot Diji, Sindh, Pakistan, Sindh River:
○​ Water harvesting, stormwater drainage.
○​ Mud brick, stone fortification.
○​ Megalithic stone circle.
○​ Well-fired red, buff wares pottery.
○​ Specialised drill, giant reservoirs.
○​ Motifs: horned deity, pipal leaves, fish scales, black.
○​ Stone construction.
●​ Amri, Sindh, Pakistan, Sindh River:
○​ Ancient signboard, engraved letters.
 ○​ Pre-Harappan settlement. ○​ Central courtyard, rooms around, used for cooking,
○​ Transitional culture, pre/post-Harappan. weaving.
○​ Rhinoceros remains. ○​ Kalibangan: Wells in houses, accessible from outside.
●​ Sutkagendor, Sindh, Pakistan, Dasht River: ●​ Drainage:
○​ Ash-filled pot, copper axe, earthen bangles, pottery. ○​ House drains to sump/cesspit, wastewater to street drains.
○​ Originally port, later cut off from sea, coastal upliftment. ○​ Main channels: Brick, mortar, covered with removable
○​ Trade links: Babylon. bricks/limestone.
○​ Long channels, sumps for cleaning.
●​ Citadel features:
Polity
○​ Mud-brick platform, separated by wall.
○​ Residential structures, ruling class.
●​ No rulers: Some suggest equal status.
○​ Public structures: Great Bath, granaries.
●​ Multiple rulers: Separate rulers for Mohenjo-Daro, Harappa, etc.
●​ Great Bath, Mohenjo-Daro:
●​ Rulers: Possibly merchants, not priests (unlike Mesopotamia).
○​ Rectangular tank, courtyard, corridor on all sides.
●​ Central authority: Uniform pottery, seals, weights, bricks, script,
○​ Burnt brick floor, watertight gypsum mortar.
labour mobilisation.
○​ Side rooms for changing.
●​ City planning: Grid pattern, streets at right angles.
●​ Granaries:
●​ Streets: Broad, rectangular/square blocks, laid before houses.
○​ Great Granary, largest building, Mohenjo-Daro.
●​ Construction: Burnt bricks, stones, mud bricks for houses, burnt
○​ Six granaries, Harappa citadel.
bricks for drainage.
○​ Circular brick platforms, threshing grains, wheat, barley in
●​ Bricks: 1:2:4 ratio (thickness:width:length), uniform across sites.
crevices.
●​ Comparison: Egypt (dried bricks), Mesopotamia (baked bricks, less
○​ Kalibangan: Southern brick platform, possible granary.
extensive).

Archaeological Developments
Town Planning and Structures

●​ 1826: Charles Mason visits Harappa.

●​ Major cities: Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro, Dholavira, Lothal, Surkotada,
●​ 1853, 1856, 1875: Alexander Cunningham visits Harappa.
Kalibangan, Banawali, Rakhigarhi.
●​ 1875: Cunningham reports Harappan seals.
●​ City division: Lower town (common citizens), citadel/acropolis
●​ 1921: M.S. Vats begins Harappa excavations.
(raised, west of city).
●​ 1925: Excavations begin, Mohenjo-Daro.
●​ Lower town: Professional activities, residential.
●​ 1946: R.E.M. Wheeler excavates Harappa.
●​ Citadel: Smaller area, public buildings, granaries, workshops.
●​ 1955: S.R. Rao begins Lothal excavations.
●​ Houses:
●​ 1960: B.B. Lal, B.K. Thapar begin Kalibangan excavations.
○​ Burnt brick bathrooms, proper drains.
●​ 1990: R.S. Bisht begins Dholavira excavations.
○​ Varied sizes, two+ stories, multiple rooms, monotonous
●​ Sir John Marshal: Director General, ASI, initiated Harappa
design.
research.
Religious Practices ●​ Predominantly urban, middle-class dominant.
●​ Social groups: Rulers, wealthy merchants, poor labourers (lower
●​ Secular civilisation, religion not dominant. town).
●​ No temples, worship inferred from statues, figurines. ●​ Burials:
●​ Earth as fertility goddess, terracotta figurine (plant from woman’s ○​ Elaborate, evidence of cremation.
embryo). ○​ Pottery, ornaments, jewellery, copper mirrors, beads.
●​ Mother goddesses: From 6th century AD, Durga, Amba, Kali, ○​ Belief in afterlife.
Chandi (Purana, Tantra). ○​ Dead in pits, some with brick-lined hollows.
●​ Male deity: Seal, three heads, three horns, yogi posture, surrounded ○​ Jewellery in male, female burials.
by elephant, tiger, rhinoceros, buffalo, Pashupati Mahadeva ●​ Lifestyle:
(Proto-Shiva). ○​ Men, women: Dhoti, shawl attire.
●​ Practices: Yoni worship, phallic (lingam) worship, zoolatry, fire ○​ Cosmetics: Cinnabar, facepaint, lipstick, collyrium
altars, tree worship (pipal tree). (eyeliner).
●​ Amulets: Large numbers, ward off ghosts, evil forces. ●​ Artefacts:
●​ Fire altars: Kalibangan. ○​ Rare, valuable materials: Mohenjo-Daro, Harappa.
○​ Miniature faience pots, possible perfume bottles,
Mohenjo-Daro, Harappa.
Harappan Script
○​ Gold jewellery: Recovered from hoards.
●​ Oldest script, Indian subcontinent, right to left.
●​ Undeciphered, no connection with West Asian scripts. Agriculture
●​ Inscriptions: Mostly on seals, few words, longest text ~26 signs.
●​ Non-alphabetical, 250–400 pictographs. ●​ Key subsistence source, surplus drove developments.
●​ Uses: Record private property, keep accounts. ●​ Evidence:
○​ Terracotta plough models: Cholistan, Banawali.
○​ Ploughed fields: Kalibangan, two furrow sets, right angles,
Weights and Measures
double cropping.
○​ Rice cultivation: Lothal (1800 BC), Rangpur.
●​ Standard measures for commercial transactions.
○​ Bull representations: Seals, terracotta, ploughing.
●​ Weights: Chert stone, cubical, no markings.
●​ Crops: Wheat, barley, lentils, chickpeas, sesame, mustard, millets.
●​ Units: Multiples of 16 (16, 64, 160, 320, 640).
●​ Tools: Animal-drawn wooden plough, stone sickles.
●​ Tradition: 16 annas = 1 rupee.
●​ Irrigation: Canals, wells.
●​ Numbering: Binary system (1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32).
●​ Taxes: Cereals, stored in granaries, wages, emergencies.
●​ Measurement: Sticks with measure marks, bronze stick, 1 inch ~1.75
●​ Comparison: Similar to Mesopotamia.
cm.

Animal Domestication
Society
 ●​ Pastoralism practised. ●​ Material procurement:
●​ Domesticated: Zebu (humped cattle), oxen, buffaloes, goats, ○​ Carnelian: South Rajasthan.
sheep, pigs, fowl, dogs, cats, asses, camels. ○​ Shell: Nageshwar, Balakot.
●​ Wild: Boar, deer, gharial, elephants, rhinoceros (Amri). ○​ Steatite: South Rajasthan.
●​ Unknown: Horse, lion. ○​ Lapis lazuli: Shortughai.
●​ Birds: Peacock, possibly haja-bird (Mesopotamian myths). ○​ Copper: Khetri, Rajasthan, Oman.
○​ Gold: Khetri, South India.
●​ Trade: Barter with Sumer, Mesopotamia.
Trade and Commerce
●​ Ganeshwar-Jodhpura culture: Non-Harappan pottery, copper
objects, possible copper supply to Harappans.
●​ Evidence: Harappan seals, materials in Sumerian (Oman, Bahrain,
●​ Crafts: Metal casting, boat-making, stone carving, pottery,
Iraq, Iran), Mesopotamian sites.
terracotta images (animal, plant, bird motifs).
●​ Imitation: Mesopotamian cosmetics.
●​ Sculptures:
●​ Cuneiform inscriptions:
○​ Stone: Male torso, red sandstone (Harappa), bearded man,
○​ Trade contact, Mesopotamia-Harappans.
soapstone (Mohenjo-Daro).
○​ Meluha: Indus region, land of seafarers.
○​ Bronze, terracotta: Mother goddess, Harappa.
○​ Trading stations: Dilmun (Bahrain), Makan (Makran coast).
○​ Terracotta: Crude human forms, realistic in Gujarat,
●​ Dockyard: Lothal, long-distance trade.
Kalibangan.
●​ Transport: Bullock carts, boats, solid-wheel carts, similar to ekka.
●​ Seals: Steatite, agate, ivory, chert, copper, faience, terracotta;
●​ Trade: Barter, no metallic money.
Pashupati, unicorn bull, rhinoceros, tiger, elephant, bison, goat,
●​ Imports:
buffalo; identity markers for transported materials.
○​ Gold: Afghanistan, Iran, Kolar.
●​ Pottery:
○​ Tin: Afghanistan, Iran.
○​ Wheel-made, some hand-made.
○​ Jade: Pamir.
○​ Red clay, plain more common, deep red slip, black
○​ Bitumen: Balochistan, Mesopotamia.
paintings.
○​ Lead: South India.
○​ Motifs: Pipal leaves, fish-scale, intersecting circles, zigzag
○​ Steatite: Tapi Chahya, Iran.
lines, horizontal bands, geometrical, floral, faunal patterns.
○​ Copper: Khetri, Rajasthan, Oman.
●​ Textiles:
○​ Lapis lazuli: Shortughai, Afghanistan.
○​ Cotton, silk knowledge.
○​ Turquoise: Iran.
○​ Priest image: Shawl-like cloth, flower decorations.
●​ Exports: Agricultural products, cotton goods, terracotta figurines,
○​ Spinning: Cotton, wool.
beads (Chanhudaro), conch-shell (Lothal), ivory, carnelian, lapis
●​ Ornaments:
lazuli, copper, gold, wood varieties.
○​ Materials: Carnelian, jasper, crystal, steatite, copper,
bronze, gold, shell, faience, terracotta, burnt clay.
Art and Craft ○​ Carnelian: Yellowish chalcedony fired to red.
 ○​ Evidence: Mesopotamian sites, Farmana cemetery
(Haryana, ornaments with burials).
●​ Metal, Tools, Weapons:
○​ Bronze Age, copper-bronze tools, tin-copper mix.
Theories Behind Decline
○​ Tools: Chert blades, copper points, chisels, needles,
fishhooks, razors, weighing pans, mirrors, antimony rods.
●​ Climate Change: Continuous drought, drying rivers, water
○​ Weapons: Arrowheads, spearheads, celts, axes.
resources.
○​ Rohri chert: Fine-grained sedimentary rock, Rohri,
●​ Floods, River Shifting: Shifting Indus, Ghaggar-Hakra rivers,
Pakistan, for blades, tools.
recurring floods, disrupted settlements.
○​ Bronze casting: Lost wax technique, Dancing Girl
●​ Declining Soil Fertility: Desert expansion, reduced soil fertility,
(Mohenjo-Daro), bull (Kalibangan).
agricultural regions.
○​ No iron knowledge.
●​ Decline in Trade: Weakened trade, Mesopotamia, other regions,
loss of economic prosperity.
Cultural Contributions ●​ Aryan Invasion: Proposed invasion, controversial, debated.
●​ Earthquakes: Tectonic activities, river course shifts, city
●​ Population: Mixed, pastoralists, farmers, hunter-gatherers. destruction, structural ruins.
●​ Settlements: Villages, large towns. ●​ Internal Decline: Sociopolitical collapse, internal conflicts, lack of
●​ Regional cultures: unified leadership.
○​ South (Kerala, Sri Lanka): Hunting, gathering. ●​ Overexploitation: Excessive deforestation, resource depletion,
○​ Karnataka, Andhra: Neolithic, pastoralism, plough environmental degradation.
agriculture. ●​ Post-decline: People shifted south, east from Indus region.
○​ Deccan, Western India: Chalcolithic.
○​ North (Kashmir, Ganges, Central, East India): Neolithic.
●​ Cultural mosaic: Diverse cultures across India.

Introduction

●​ Time Period: 1500–600 BC, late Bronze Age, early Iron Age
●​ Context: Between end of Indus Valley Civilisation and second
Vedic Age urbanisation (~600 BC, central Indo-Gangetic Plain)
 ●​ Developments: Agricultural surplus, crafts, trade, population ●​ Definition: Linguistic term, speakers of Indo-Iranian branch of
growth, emergence of Gangetic plain towns Indo-European languages
●​ Second Urbanisation: Post-Harappan, first urbanisation ●​ Arya: Cultural/ethnic term, from ‘ar’ (cultivate), means kinsmen,
●​ Named After: Vedas, sacred texts composed during period companion, noble
●​ Composers: Aryans, self-described in Vedic texts ●​ Original Home: Debated, multiple theories
●​ Periods: Early Vedic (1500–1000 BC), Later Vedic (1000–600 BC) ●​ Theories:
○​ Migration from Europe (William Jones, Morgan):
Semi-nomadic Aryans from Eastern Europe, north of Black
Sources to Study Vedic Age
Sea, linguistic similarities (Greek, Latin, German, Sanskrit),
e.g., Suryyas (Kassite) = Surya, Maruttash = Marut
●​ Vedic Texts:
○​ Central Asian Theory (Max Muller, E. Meyer Herzfeld):
○​ Early Vedic: Rig Veda
Linguistic parallels between Avesta, Vedas, shared
○​ Later Vedic: Samaveda, Yajurveda, Atharvaveda
concepts, e.g., Ahura (asura), Haoma (soma), ‘h’ and ‘s’
○​ Details: Fundamental texts of Aryan culture, society
interchange
●​ Iranian Text: Zend Avesta (14th century BC), mentions Indo-Iranian
○​ Arctic Region Theory (Bal Gangadhar Tilak): North Pole as
lands, gods, linguistic similarities with Vedas
original home, preglacial period, climate change
●​ Greek Texts: Iliad, Odyssey (Homer, 8th century BC), indirect
migration, Vedic references to six-month days/nights
Indo-European connections
○​ Tibet Theory (Swami Dayanand Saraswati): Sun, fire
●​ Inscriptions:
worship due to cold, Rig Veda flora/fauna in Tibet
○​ Kassite (1600 BC), Mitanni (1400 BC): Evidence of Aryan
○​ Indian Theory (Dr. Sampurnanad, AC Das): Sapta Sindhu
westward migration, Vedic gods in Iraq-Syria
as primary homeland, Sanskrit’s Indo-European terms,
○​ Boghazkoi (1400 BC): Oldest inscription mentioning Vedic
Vedic rituals rooted in India
gods, found in Turkey-Syria
●​ Archaeological Sites:
○​ Andronovo Culture (2000–1150 BC): Aryan migration Early Vedic Period (Rig Vedic Period, 1500–1000 BC)
evidence, links to Hindukush
○​ Excavations (1700–600 BC): Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, ●​ Primary Source: Rig Veda
Rajasthan, settlements along Indus, Ghaggar rivers ●​ Geographical Expansion:
○​ Region: Saptasindhu (land of seven rivers), present-day
Afghanistan, Punjab, Haryana
○​ Rivers: Jhelum (Vatista), Beas (Vipasa), Chenab (Askini),
Ravi (Purushni), Sutlej (Sutudri), Saraswati
(Ghaggar/Hakra), Indus (Sindhu)
○​ Most Mentioned: Sindhu (Indus)
Indo-Aryans ○​ Most Revered: Saraswati
○​ Names: Saraswati Valley (Brahmavarta), Himalayas
(Himavant), Hindu Kush (Munjavant)
●​ Political Structure: ○​ Dasa, Dasyu: Conquered, treated as slaves, Sudras; Dasas
○​ Tribal Kingdoms: Bharatas, Matsyas, Yadus, Purus (Iranian texts, early Aryans), Dasyus (original inhabitants,
○​ Tribal Chief (Rajan): Protector of tribe, safeguarded cattle, phallus worship, no cattle)
led wars, performed religious duties, also called ○​ Aryan Chief: Trasadayu overpowered Dasa, Dasyu, soft to
Gopati/Gopa (cow protector) Dasas, hostile to Dasyus
○​ Queen: Mahisi ○​ Military Tech: Horse-driven chariots, better arms, Varman
○​ Kingship: Hereditary, some election by Samiti (tribal (coat of mail, chain mail/overlapping plates)
assembly) ○​ Bharatavarsha: Named after Bharata tribe, term from Rig
○​ Assemblies: Sabha (elders), Samiti (people), Vidatha Veda
(tribe), Gana (clan), deliberative, military, religious roles ●​ Society:
○​ Women: Attended Sabha, Vidatha ○​ Differentiation: Varna (colour), Aryans (fair-skinned),
●​ Governance: non-Aryans (darker, different language)
○​ No formal judicial system, no specific justice officer ○​ Non-Aryans: Avrata (no divine ordinances), Akratu (no
○​ Spies: Checked theft (cows), burglary sacrifices)
○​ Official Titles (Non-Territorial): ○​ Egalitarian: No caste, occupations not birth-based, no
■​ Purohita: Motivated chiefs, praised deeds, strict hierarchy
rewarded with cows, slaves ○​ Varna System: Introduced late, Purusashukta (Tenth
■​ Senani: Army chief, skilled in weaponry Mandal, Rig Veda), inequality emerged, society divided
■​ Vrajapati: Controlled pasture grounds, territory, into warriors, priests, people (Iran pattern)
led Kulapas (family heads), Gramanis (fighting ○​ Slavery: Women slaves, domestic use, not agriculture
unit leaders) in battle ○​ Gifts: Cereals rare, land absent
○​ Synonymy: Gramani, Vrajapati roles merged over time ●​ Family Structure:
●​ Military Structure and Conflicts: ○​ Social Root: Brotherhood
○​ No standing army, tribal units mobilised for war: Vrat, ○​ Primary Unit: Kula (mother, father, son, slaves, others),
Gana, Grama, Sardha headed by Kulapa
○​ Conflicts: Aryans vs. pre-Aryans, internal tribal disputes ○​ Basic Unit: Griha (family), headed by Grihapati, wife
○​ Panchajana: Five Aryan tribes, Bharatas, Tritsu dominant, Sapatni, joint, patrilineal
backed by priest Vasishtha ○​ Larger Units: Vis (clan, multiple families), Jana (largest
○​ Battle of Ten Kings (Dashrajana): Bharatas, led by Sudas, unit, multiple Vis)
defeated ten rulers (Aryan, non-Aryan) on Parushni (Ravi) ○​ Terms: Jana, Vis in Rig Veda, Janapada absent
river ○​ Conflict Units: Vis divided into Grama (tribal fighting units),
○​ Alliances: Bharatas, Puru formed Kurus; Kurus, Panchalas clashes caused Samgrama (war)
controlled Upper Ganga Valley ○​ Marriage: Monogamy primary, polygyny, polyandry
○​ Pandava, Kauravas: Kuru clan observed
○​ Children: Desire for children, cattle, no desire for daughters
●​ Status of Women:
 ○​ Patriarchal: Equal opportunities for spiritual, intellectual ■​ Indra: Greatest god, 250 hymns, Purandhar (fort
development (Upanayana, education, selecting partners, breaker), Urvarajit (field winner), Maghavan
widow remarriage) (bounteous), Vritrahan (chaos slayer)
○​ Women Poets: Apala, Viswavara, Ghosa, Lopamudra ■​ Agni: Second, god of fire, 200 hymns, intermediary
○​ Practices Absent: Child marriage, sati, purdah between gods, men
○​ Marriage Age: 16–17 ■​ Varuna: Third, god of water, maintains cosmic
●​ Economy: order (Rita)
○​ Primary Occupation: Pastoral, cattle-rearing, wealth by ■​ Soma: God of plants, inspires poets, 11th mandala
cow numbers of Rig Veda
○​ Trade: Limited, barter system, cow as exchange item ■​ Others: Rudra (destruction, later Shiva), Yama
○​ Land Ownership: Absent, clans shared resources, Rajan, (death), Pushan (Sudras, cattle), Surya (Dyaus’
purohits, artisans in clan networks son), Vishnu (benevolent), Maruts (storms),
○​ Agriculture: Primitive, fire-clearing, wooden ploughs Ashvinis (war, fertility twins)
(langala, sura), sita (furrow), cultivated barley (yavam), ■​ Goddesses: Savitri (solar, Gayatri Mantra, 3rd
wheat (godhuma) mandala), Aditi (eternity, mother of gods), Usha
○​ Irrigation: Wells, cattle-driven water-lifts, pulleys (dawn), Sinivali (fertility)
○​ Crafts: Carpentry, weaving, chariot-making (prestigious, ■​ Demi-gods: Gandharvas (musicians), Vishwadevas
chariot-racing), Siri (yarn, women spinning), Takshan (intermediate), Apsaras (mistresses), Aryaman
(carpenters) (compacts, marriages)
●​ Taxation and Exchanges:
○​ Economy: Voluntary/compulsory Bali (contribution) from
Later Vedic Period (1000–600 BC)
Vis, war bounties
○​ Social Exchange: Gift redistribution, courtesies, hospitality,
●​ Sources: Vedic texts post-Rig Veda
military aid
●​ Culture: Painted Grey Ware (PGW) Culture, Iron Age
○​ Metals: Iron absent, Ayas (copper/bronze), Karmara
●​ Tribes: Kurus, Panchalas, Vashas, Ushinaras
(smith), Hiranya (gold, oldest Sanskrit word)
●​ Geographical Expansion:
●​ Religion:
○​ Movement: Eastern areas (up to Bengal), core
○​ Worship: Natural forces (earth, fire, wind, rain, thunder) via
Kuru-Panchala region (Indo-Gangetic divide, upper Ganga
yajnas
Valley)
○​ Henotheism/Kathenotheism: Each hymn elevated deity to
○​ Kuru-Panchalas: Major ethnic group, Hastinapur capital
supreme status temporarily
○​ Eastern Kingdoms: Magadha, Anga, Vanga
○​ Fire Cult: Indo-Aryans, Indo-Iranians
○​ Kurus: Bharatas, Purus, between Saraswati, Drishadvati,
○​ Magic, Omens: Not prevalent
later Doab (Kurukshetra)
○​ Meat, Sacrifices: Common, cows (Aghnya, not killed)
○​ Rivers: Saraswati, Dhristavati in texts
○​ Deities:
 ○​ Divisions: Aryavarta (North), Madhyadesa (Central), ○​ Kshatriyas: Challenged Brahmanical supremacy, exclusive
Dakshinapatha (South), Western Ganga-Valley as ashram access, led to Jainism, Buddhism, Ajivakam
Aryavarta ○​ Ashramas: Brahmacharya, Grihastha, Vanaprastha
●​ Political Structure: mentioned, Sannyasa not developed
○​ Assemblies: Rig Vedic assemblies (Sabha, Samiti) ○​ Dvija (Twice-Born): Developed, upper sections, Upanayana
diminished, Vidatha disappeared (sacred thread) limited, Sudras, women denied Gayatri
○​ Janas: Evolved to Janapadas (territory-based), term in mantra
Brahmanas (~800 BC) ○​ Craft Groups: Rathakaras (chariot makers) gained sacred
○​ Nagara: Commercial quarters in later texts, large towns at thread right
period’s end ○​ Vaishyas: Paid taxes, agriculture, cattle, artisans, later
○​ Proto-Urban Sites: Hastinapura, Kausambi traders
○​ King (Rajan): Increased authority, titles Rajavisvajanan, ○​ Below Sudras: Chandala (Panchamas, untouchables)
Ahilabhuvanapathi (lord of earth), Ekrat, Samrat (sole ○​ Urbanism: Rural society, traces of towns (nagar) in
ruler), Samrajya concept Taittiriya Aranyaka
○​ Kingship: Hereditary emerging, traces of election ●​ Family Structure:
○​ Terms: Rashtra (territory), Rajya (sovereign power) ○​ Unit: Patriarchal, patrilineal family, hierarchical relations
○​ Assistance: Priest, commander, chief queen ○​ Polygyny: Prevalent
○​ Local Matters: Village assemblies, dominant clan chiefs ○​ Household: Structured, organised, rituals for welfare,
○​ Army: No standing army, tribal units mobilised for war Yajamana (married man, wife)
○​ Wars: For territories, not cows, agricultural society ○​ Joint Families: Three-four generations, communal food
○​ Rituals: Rajasuya (royal consecration), Ashvamedha (horse preparation (Atranjikhera, Ahichchhtra, Western Uttar
sacrifice, territorial control), Vajapeya (chariot race, royal Pradesh)
victory), Srauta sacrifices for resources ○​ Gotra: Emerged, ‘cowpen’, common ancestor, no
○​ State Formation: Post-500 BCE, society in transition intermarriage within gotra
●​ Society: ○​ Clans: Unilineal descent groups, related clans formed tribe
○​ Varna System: Established, four varnas: Brahmanas ○​ Marriage Rules: Same-gotra marriages prohibited,
(teaching), Kshatriyas (warriors, rulers, Bali tax), Vaishyas Chandrayana penance for violations
(agriculture, cattle, artisans, later traders), Sudras ●​ Status of Women:
○​ Brahmanas: Wives, cows important, increased privileges ○​ Decline: No assembly attendance, excluded from rituals
with Kshatriyas ○​ Patriarchal: Limited to domestic tasks
○​ Varna Rankings: Panchavimsa Brahmana (Kshatriya > ○​ Practices: Sati, child marriage prevalent
Brahmana), Satapatha Brahmana (Brahmana > Kshatriya) ○​ Daughters: Labelled as sorrow (Aitreya Brahmana)
○​ King’s Authority: Over three varnas, Aitreya Brahmana ○​ Exceptions: Gargi (outwitted Yajnavalkya), Maitreyi
(Brahmana removable) (knowledge domain)
○​ Sacrificial Rituals: Enhanced Brahmanas’ influence ●​ Economy:
 ○​ Primary Livelihood: Agriculture, tree clearing (burning), astrologers, washermen, hunters, boatmen, cooks, Vedic
plough-based (Satapatha Brahmana) sacrifice performers
○​ Tools: Few iron, mostly wooden ploughs ○​ Elephant: References in Atharva Veda, elephant keeper
○​ Crops: Barley (Yava), rice (Vrihi), wheat (Godhuma, Punjab mentioned
staple), lentils, rice in Ganga-Yamuna doab, rice in rituals ●​ Religious Trends:
○​ Mixed Farming: Cultivation, herding ○​ Centre: Upper Ganga Doab, Kuru-Panchalas land
○​ Transport: Oxen-drawn wagons ○​ Idolatry: Signs emerged
○​ Land Ownership: Community-owned, Vish rights, Grihapati ○​ Deity Shift: Indra, Agni replaced by Prajapati (creator),
as household land owner Vishnu (preserver, protector), Rudra (rituals,
○​ Exchange: Barter, Nishka (gold/silver ornament) Pasunampatih, Sarva, Bhava, Bahikas in Satapatha
○​ Shreni: Trader, merchant, artisan association, led by Brahmana)
Shreshthi ○​ Vishnu: No incarnation references
○​ Taxation: Mandatory taxes, tributes from Vaishyas, ○​ Sacrifices: Animal sacrifices overshadowed prayers,
collected by Sangrihitri correct ritual performance stressed, Dakshina payment
○​ Trade: Developed, material culture shows commodity emphasized
movement, specialised caravan traders, no coins, barter ○​ Rituals: Complex, resource-intensive, material wealth
until ~600 BCE focus, led to Upanishads’ atman (inner self) emphasis,
●​ Knowledge of Metals: opposed rituals
○​ Iron: Started ~1200 BC, Krishna Ayas/Shyama Ayas, used ○​ Heterodox Faiths: Buddhism, Jainism emerged,
in Gandhara, eastern Punjab, western UP, MP, Rajasthan emphasized behaviour, discipline
(~1000 BC) ○​ Varna Deities: Pushan (Sudras, cattle)
○​ Iron Weapons: Arrowheads, spearheads, western UP (~800 ○​ Sacrificial Gifts: Cows, gold, cloth, horses, priests claimed
BC) territory (not established), agricultural produce (cooked
○​ Iron Axe: Forest clearing, upper Gangetic basin rice, rarely wheat), Til (vegetable oil)
○​ Iron Spread: Eastern UP, Videha (Mithila), late Vedic period ○​ Resistance: Against priestly dominance, cults, sacrifices, in
○​ Other Metals: Copper, tin, gold, bronze, lead, copper for Panchala, Videha
weapons (war, hunting) ●​ Education:
○​ Glass: Manufacturing known ○​ Disciplines: Philosophy, literature, science, grammar,
●​ Arts and Crafts: mathematics, ethics, astronomy
○​ Pottery: Painted Grey Ware, Black and Red Ware, ○​ Vedic Texts: Emphasis on pronunciation, grammar, oral
Black-slipped Ware, Red Ware transmission, training in utterances, memorisation
○​ Burnt Bricks: Rarely used ○​ Upanishads: Composed, called Vedanta, last part of Vedic
○​ Crafts: Weaving, leatherwork, pottery, carpentry, Kulala texts
(potters), Urna sutra (wool) ○​ Education: Male-only, teacher-pupil relationship,
○​ Professions: Bow makers, rope makers, arrow makers, hide person-oriented training
dressers, stone breakers, physicians, goldsmiths, ●​ Other Aspects of Life:
 ○​ Music: Lute, flute, drum ■​ Sacrifices, rituals, prose, poetry
○​ Ornaments: Silk, metal (gold, copper), glass beads, metal ■​ Divisions: Shukla (White, mantras only,
mirrors Madhyandina, Kanva recensions), Krishna (Black,
mantras, prose commentary)
○​ Atharva Veda:
Vedic Literature
■​ Magic, charms, omens, agriculture, industry,
cattle, disease cures
●​ Definition: ‘Veda’ from ‘vid’ (to know), superior knowledge
●​ Other Texts:
●​ Components:
○​ Brahmanas:
○​ Four Vedas: Rigveda, Samaveda, Yajurveda, Atharvaveda
■​ Rules for sacrificial ceremonies, explain Vedic
○​ Brahmanas: Prose, elucidate mantras, describe sacrificial
hymns
rituals
■​ Attached to each Veda, Satpatha Brahmana (Yajur
○​ Aranyakas: Forest treatises, mysticism, philosophy, oppose
Veda) most exhaustive
sacrifice
○​ Aranyakas:
○​ Upanishads: Philosophical dialogues, Vedanta (end of
■​ Forest books, by hermits for pupils, mysticism,
Veda)
philosophy, meditation, ritual interpretation
●​ Tradition: Oral, transcribed later, earliest manuscript 11th century
■​ Composed in later Vedic period
●​ Smriti:
○​ Upanishads:
○​ Includes: Four Vedas, Samhitas, Brahmanas, Aranyakas,
■​ ‘Sit near someone’, philosophical dialogues,
Upanishads, 6 Vedangas, Upavedas
guru-shishya
○​ Recollected by humans, commentaries on Vedas
■​ 108 Upanishads, 13 prominent
●​ Four Vedas:
■​ Mandukyopanishad: Largest, “Satyamev Jayate”
○​ Rig Veda:
■​ Chhandogya Upanishad: Mentions first three
■​ Oldest text, mentions universe origin
ashramas
■​ 10 Mandals: II–VII earliest, I, X later
■​ Jabala Upanishad: 4-fold ashram for 4
(Purusashukta, four varnas), VIII (Kanva family),
Purusharthas (not for women, Sudras)
IX (Soma hymns)
■​ Translation: Dara Shukoh, Persian, 1657
■​ Hymns, prayers to Agni, Indra, Mitra, Varuna, by
○​ Vedanta:
poet/sages families
■​ Philosophical, spiritual traditions from Upanishads,
■​ Vedic chanting: UNESCO intangible heritage
Vedic conclusion
■​ Language: Sanskrit, Munda, Dravidian words
■​ Criticises sacrifices, rituals
(Harappan influence)
○​ Vedanga:
○​ Sama Veda:
■​ ‘Limbs of Vedas’, supplementary texts, human
■​ Earliest music book, Sama (melody), ragas, raginis
origin, Sutra form
■​ Poetic texts from Rig Veda
■​ Dhrupada raga, sung by Tansen
○​ Yajur Veda:
 ■​ Six: Siksha (pronunciation), Nirukta (word origins), 23.​ Gana: Troops
Chhanda (metrics), Jyotish (astrology), Vyakaran 24.​ Dhanya: Cereals
(grammar), Kalpa (rituals, Dharma sutras) 25.​ Gavisthi: Search/war for cows
●​ Vedic Associations: 26.​ Varthaka: Business people
○​ Rig Veda: Upaveda (Ayurveda, medicine), Brahmanas 27.​ Akshvapa: Accountant
(Aitareya, Kaushitiki/Sankhyana), Upanishads (Aitareya, 28.​ Kshata: Keeper of king’s household
Kaushitiki), Aranyakas (Aitareya, Kaushitiki), Mantras 29.​ Gauri: Buffalo
(1028), Priest (Hotri/Hotar) 30.​ Panis: Traders/caravan trader
○​ Sama Veda: Upaveda (Gandharva Veda, music), 31.​ Niyoga: Widow remarriage type
Brahmanas (Panchvimsh/Tandya, Jaiminiya), Upanishads 32.​ Gaun: Places for cattle
(Kena, Chandogya), Aranyakas (Jaiminiya, Chandogya), 33.​ Suta: Charioteer
Mantras (1810), Priest (Udgatar) 34.​ Goghna: Guest/fed on cattle
○​ Yajur Veda: Upaveda (Dhanurveda, warfare), Brahmanas 35.​ Jivagribha, Ugra: Police officers
(Taittiriya, Shatapatha), Upanishads (Taittiriya, Katha, Isa, 36.​ Bhagadugha: Tax collector
Brihadaranyaka), Aranyakas (Taittiriya), Priest (Adhvaryu) 37.​ Palagala: Messenger
○​ Atharva Veda: Upaveda (Sthapatya/Shilp Veda,
architecture), Brahmana (Gopatha), Upanishads
Origin of Buddhism and Jainism
(Mandukya, Mundaka, Prashan), Mantras (6000)
●​ Buddhism and Jainism: Major heterodox sects, emerged post-Vedic
Terms Used in Vedic Period era
●​ Reasons for emergence:
8.​ Govikartana: Forest chief ○​ Rising spirit of scepticism, questioning customs, orthodoxy
9.​ Vap: To sow ○​ Kshatriya opposition to Brahmin ritual dominance
10.​ Madhyamasi: Mediator in disputes ○​ Vedic cattle sacrifices hindered new agricultural economy
11.​ Gavyuti: Measure of distance needing cattle
12.​ Gojit: Winner of cows/hero ○​ Support from Vaisya community:
13.​ Soma/Sura: Intoxicating drink ■​ Non-violence reduced wars, facilitated trade,
14.​ Duhitri: Daughter (one who milks cow) commerce
15.​ Srini: Sickle ■​ Dharmasutras decried lending on interest, rejected
16.​ Sthapati: Chief judge by these religions
17.​ Godhuli: Measure of time (dusk) ■​ Initially ignored varna system, improved Vaisya
18.​ Sabhavati: Women attending assembly position
19.​ Nishka: Gold/silver ornament
20.​ Takshan: Carpenter
Buddhism and Gautama Buddha
21.​ Spasa: Spy
22.​ Ghrita: Butter
Introduction ●​ Following: Royalty, lay persons, Asoka adopted Buddhist ideas in
state policy
●​ Gautama Buddha (Siddhartha): Born 563 BC, Sakya Kshatriya ●​ Death: Age 80, 483 BC, Kushinagar, Uttar Pradesh,
family, Lumbini near Kapilavastu (Nepal) Parinirvana/Mahaparinirvana
●​ Contemporary: Mahavira ●​ Last words: “Be lamps unto yourselves, work out your own
●​ Ashoka: Erected pillar at Lumbini to mark visit liberation”
●​ Father: Suddhodhana, elected ruler of Kapilavastu, Sakya republic
●​ Mother: Mahamaya, Koshala princess, dreamt of white elephant Buddhist Art Representation of 5 Stages
entering womb
●​ Foster mother: Mahaprajapati Gautami, first woman (Bhikkhuni) in ●​ Events (Hinayana/Mahayana):
Sangha ○​ Birth: Elephant/Lotus, Maya’s dream
●​ Married: Yashodhara, son named Rahula ○​ Renunciation: Horse, Buddha in monk dress with horse
●​ Four sights: Old man, sick man, corpse, religious mendicant, led to ○​ Enlightenment: Peepal Tree, Bhumisparshamudra
realisation of suffering ○​ First Sermon: Wheel (8 spokes for 8 paths),
Dharmachakrapravartana Mudra
Buddha’s Road to Nirvana ○​ Death: Stupa (holy relics buried), Mahaparinirvana mudra
(lying on side, head on palm)
●​ Age 29: Left city, Mahabhinishkramana (Great Departure), with
horse Kanthaka, charioteer Channa Doctrines of Buddhism
●​ Wandered: 7 years, sought guidance from Alara Kalama, Uddaka
Ramaputta ●​ Philosophy:
●​ Practised: Severe austerities, nearly died ○​ World: Transient (anicca), soulless (anatta), nothing
●​ Reached: Uruvela (Bodh Gaya), Niranjana River (Falgu River) permanent
●​ Age 35: Sat under peepal tree (Bodhi tree), attained Nirvana ○​ Sorrow (dukkha): Intrinsic to human existence
(enlightenment), became “Buddha” ○​ Path: Moderation between penance, self-indulgence to rise
above troubles
Life of Buddha After Nirvana ●​ Other Beliefs:
○​ Neither accepted nor denied God
●​ First sermons: Sarnath (Deer Park), Varanasi, called ○​ Addressed worldly issues, avoided soul (atman), Brahma
Dharmachakra-Pravartana (setting wheel of great law) debates
●​ Mauryan pillar: Lion Capital at Sarnath, symbolises Dhammachakra ○​ Questioned Vedic authority
Pravartana ○​ Condemned varna system, advocated equality
●​ Teachings: Four Noble Truths, Middle Path, established Sangha ●​ Four Noble Truths:
●​ Prominent disciples: Sariputta, Mahamoggallana, Mahakaccayana, ○​ Suffering (Dukkha): Birth, age, death, separation,
Ananda unfulfilled wish
 ○​ Origin (Samudaya): Desires (Trishna) for pleasure, power, ●​ First human statues worshipped: Likely Buddha
long life ●​ Successor: None named, teachings as guide
○​ Cessation (Nirvana): Freedom from sorrow ●​ Rationalism: Encouraged critical thinking, logic over superstition
○​ Path (Magga): Noble Eightfold Path (Middle Path) ●​ Kutagarashala: Hut with pointed roof/groves, place for intellectual
●​ Eightfold Path (Astangika Marga): Right view, intention, speech, debate
action, livelihood, effort, mindfulness, concentration
●​ Karma and Rebirth: Past actions shape current life, liberation via Buddhist Councils
Middle Path leads to nirvana
●​ 1st (483 BC):
Code of Conduct ○​ Place: Sattapani cave, Rajagriha
○​ King: Ajatashatru
●​ Common People/Monks (Avoid): ○​ President: Maha Kassapa
○​ Coveting others’ property ○​ Events: Upali recited Vinaya Pitaka; Ananda recited Sutta
○​ Violence Pitaka
○​ Intoxicants ●​ 2nd (383 BC):
○​ Lying ○​ Place: Vaishali
○​ Corrupt practices ○​ King: Kalashoka
●​ Monks: ○​ President: Sabbakami
○​ Restrictions: Food, attire, sexual conduct ○​ Events: Split into Sthaviravadin (Elders’ Teachings),
○​ Prohibited: Accepting gold, silver, buying, selling Mahasamghika (Great Community)
○​ Resembled primitive communism ●​ 3rd (250 BC):
○​ Place: Patliputra
Special Features of Buddhism ○​ King: Ashoka
○​ President: Moggaliputta-Tissa
●​ Triratna (Three Elements): Buddha, Sangha, Dhamma ○​ Events: Added Kathavatthu to Abhidhamma Pitaka,
●​ Spread: missions sent outside India (Sri Lanka)
○​ Magadha, Kosala, Kausambi, republics adopted due to ●​ 4th (72 AD):
Brahmin discrimination ○​ Place: Kundalvana, Srinagar
○​ Perceived liberalism, democracy vs. Brahmanism ○​ King: Kanishka
○​ Asoka: Promoted global spread (Central Asia, West Asia, ○​ President: Vasumitra (Sarvastivada), Ashwaghosh (Vice)
Sri Lanka) ○​ Events: Commentaries on Pitaka written, Sarvastivadin
●​ Sangha: doctrines in Mahavibhasa, division into Mahayana,
○​ Open to all, regardless of caste, sex Hinayana
○​ Initially men-only, later women admitted (via Ananda)
○​ Monks: Followed strict rules Buddhist Sects
○​ Excluded: Debtors, slaves without permission
●​ Sthaviravada/Theravada: ○​ Centre: Nalanda University (Pala patronage)
○​ Meaning: “Way of the Elders,” orthodox ○​ Scholars: Dinnaga, Dhammapala (from Kanchipuram)
○​ Goal: Cessation of Kleshas (defilements), Nirvana ○​ Spread: China, Japan
○​ Doctrine: Vibhajjavada (analysis), insight from experience,
critical investigation, reasoning Attributes and Roles
○​ Prevalent: Myanmar, Cambodia, Sri Lanka
○​ Text: Visuddhimagga (Path of Purification), Buddhaghosa, ●​ Bodhisattvas:
5th century BC, Sri Lanka ○​ Avalokiteshwara: “Lord Who Looks Down,” Padmapani,
○​ Subdivisions: Sarvastivadins (realistic pluralism), broke Lokesvara (Theravada), manifests compassion
from Vibhajyavadins, 3rd century BC ○​ Manjusri: Male, interlocutor on ultimate truth, Wenshu
○​ Offshoots: Sammatiyas, Vatsiputriyas (Pudgala/person (China), Jampelyang (Tibet), wields flaming sword, holds
theory) book
●​ Mahasanghikas: ○​ Tara: Female Bodhisattva (Mahayana), Female Buddha
○​ Formed: 2nd Buddhist Council, Acariyavadins split from (Vajrayana), Jetsun Dolma (Tibet), represents compassion,
Sthaviravadins protection
○​ Views: Foreshadowed Mahayana, focused on Buddha, ○​ Ksitigarbha: “Earth Womb,” guardian of children
Arhat nature ○​ Maitreya: Ajita Bodhisattva, future Buddha, accepted by
○​ Subdivisions (over 7 centuries): Lokottaravadins, Mahayana, non-Mahayana
Ekavyavaharikas, Kaukkutikas ○​ Samantabhadra: Associated with meditation
●​ Hinayana (Lesser Vehicle): ○​ Amitabha: Great saviour Buddha
○​ Form: Conservative, orthodox ○​ Vajrapani: Manifests Buddha’s power
○​ Prevalent: Sri Lanka, Burma, Thailand, Southeast Asia ○​ Akasagarbha: Associated with space
○​ Goal: Arhat, self-nirvana, cease rebirth ○​ Vasudhara: Associated with wealth, prosperity, abundance
○​ Criticism: Self-centered (by Mahayana) ○​ Skanda: Guardian of Viharas, Buddhist teachings
○​ Practice: Gradual nirvana via example, advice,
self-discipline, meditation Mahayana Schools of Thought
○​ View: Buddha as human, symbol worship, no deification
○​ Patron: Asoka, built stupas in Kanchipuram (per Hiuen ●​ Madhyamika (Sunyavada):
Tsang) ○​ Thinker: Nagarjuna, 2nd century AD
●​ Mahayana (Greater Vehicle): ○​ Tenet: Middle path, neither nihilism nor realism, no
○​ View: Buddha as God, focuses on Karuna (compassion) difference between Samsara, Nirvana
over Karma ○​ Text: Mula Madhyamika Karika
○​ Practice: Idol worship ○​ Position: Between Sarvastivada (all is real), Yogacara
○​ Concept: Bodhisattvas, compassionate beings (mind-only)
accumulating merit to help others ○​ Core: Tibetan School of Buddhism
○​ Goal: Samyaksambuddha (completed Bodhisattva) ●​ Yogacara (Vigyanavada):
 ○​ Thinkers: Asanga, Vasubandhu ■​ Five Nikayas: Digha, Majjhima, Samyutta,
○​ Focus: Consciousness, knowledge (idealism) Anguttara, Khuddaka
○​ Reality: “Suchness” (tathata), Dharmadhatu ■​ Works: Theragatha, Therigatha (hymns of monks,
○​ Text: Sutralankara nuns), Jataka tales (Buddha’s deeds as
○​ Vasubandhu: Converted from Sarvastivada, wrote Bodhisattva)
Abhidhamma commentary (Sarvastivada, Sautrantika ○​ Abhidhamma Pitaka: Buddhist philosophy
perspectives) ●​ Other Literature:
●​ Vajrayana (Thunderbolt Vehicle): ○​ Manimekalai: Sattanar (post-Sangam twin epic)
○​ Offshoot: Mahayana, Mantrayana, post-5th century AD ○​ Buddhcharita, Saudaranand, Sariputra Prakaran,
○​ Regions: Bengal, Bihar, Nepal, Tibet (11th century AD) Vajrasuchi, Sutralankara: Ashwaghosh
○​ Centre: Vikramasila University, Bihar ○​ Kundalakesi: Nagakuthanaar
○​ Language: Shifted from Pali to Sanskrit ○​ Abhidhmma Kosh: Vasubandhu
○​ Practice: Tantrism, rituals, chanting, tantric techniques ○​ Madhyami Karika, Prajanaparamita Karika: Nagarjuna
○​ Female element: Worship of deities like Tara, exemplified ○​ Pramāṇasamuccaya: Dignāga
by 10th-century Marichi statue (Bihar) ○​ Vishuddhimagga, Sumangalvasini, Atthakathayen:
○​ Goal: Cultivate inner qualities for understanding external Buddhaghosh
world ○​ Ceylonese Chronicles: Dipavamsa, Mahavamsa, Culavamsa
(regional histories)
Major Sects and Subsects of Buddhism ○​ Milinda Panha: Conversations between Menander,
Nagasena
●​ Hinayana: ○​ Netti Pakarana: Buddhist scripture, sometimes in
○​ Sarvastivada (Vaibhashika) Khuddaka Nikaya
○​ Sautrantrika ○​ Avadana: Anthology of 100 Buddhist legends in Sanskrit
○​ Sthaviravadins/Theravada ○​ Mahayana Texts: Lalitavistara, Saddharmapundarika,
○​ Sammitiyas Vajracchedika, Sukhavativyuha, Karandavyuha,
●​ Mahayana: Astasahasrika Prajnaparamita
○​ Madhyamika (Sunyavada) ○​ Lalitavistara: Biography of Gautama Buddha, Sanskrit,
○​ Yogachara (Vijnanavada) vernacular mix
●​ Vajrayana ○​ Samannaphala Sutta: Digha Nikaya, Buddha-Ajatashatru
conversation
Buddhist Literature
Various Mudras Under Buddhism
●​ Language: Pali (common people), aided spread
●​ Tripitakas (Three Baskets): ●​ Dhyana Mudra: Meditation, concentration, inner peace
○​ Vinaya Pitaka: Monastic rules, moral disciplines ●​ Anjali Mudra: Respect, greeting, gratitude
○​ Sutta Pitaka: Buddha’s discourses, teachings ●​ Vitarka Mudra: Teaching, discussion, transmission of knowledge
 ●​ Varada Mudra: Generosity, compassion, granting wishes ●​ Language: Adopted Sanskrit over Pali
●​ Abhaya Mudra: Fearlessness, protection, dispelling negativity ●​ Corruption: Monasteries deviated from Buddha’s teachings
●​ Bhumisparsha Mudra: Buddha’s enlightenment, earth as witness ●​ Loss of patronage: After Harshavardhana
●​ Uttarabodhi Mudra: Wisdom, compassion union, ●​ Turkish invasions: Targeted monasteries for riches
masculine-feminine balance
●​ Dharma Chakra Mudra: Wheel of Dharma, teaching in motion Major Differences Between Hinayana and Mahayana
●​ Karana Mudra: Protection, dispelling negativity, wisdom energy
●​ Jnana Mudra: Unity of individual, universal consciousness ●​ Hinayana:
●​ Tarjani Mudra: Warning, protection against evil forces ○​ Conservative
○​ Arhat ideal
Buddhist School of Philosophy ○​ Nirvana aim
○​ Harder path
●​ Four Schools: ○​ Pali language
○​ Vaibhashikas: Relative truth divisible, ultimate truth ○​ Symbolic representation
indivisible ●​ Mahayana:
○​ Sautrantikas: Selflessness of persons, not phenomena ○​ Liberal
○​ Cittamatrins: Selflessness of self, phenomena, true ○​ Bodhisattva ideal
existence of mind ○​ Spiritual upliftment aim
○​ Madhyamikas: Things appear real but lack inherent true ○​ Easier path
existence ○​ Sanskrit language
○​ Physical representation
Patron Kings of Buddhism
Important Facts Related to Buddhism
●​ Magadh Empire: Bimbisara, Ajatashatru, Kalashoka, Ashoka
●​ Indo-Greek: Menander I (Milinda) ●​ Upasaka: Lay followers, non-monks
●​ Kushans: Kanishka ●​ Parivrajaka: Male renunciant, wanderer (e.g., Buddhist Bhikkhu)
●​ Satavahana: Supported Amaravati, Karle stupas ●​ Shramana: Wandering monk (Jainism, Buddhism, Ajivikas)
●​ Guptas: Kumaragupta, Buddhagupta ●​ Paramita: Noble qualities of Buddha-like enlightened beings
●​ Pushyabhuti: Harsha, convened councils, built monasteries, ●​ Chaitya: Place of worship, congregation
promoted Mahayana ●​ Vihara: Residence of Buddhist monks
●​ Palas: Last major patrons, built Vikramashila monastery ●​ Stupa: Buried Buddha’s relics, objects
●​ Kingdoms: Kosala, Magadha, Vaishali, Rajgir
Causes of Decline of Buddhism ●​ Uposatha: Ceremony on full/new moon
●​ Upasampada: Ordination, novice to full monk
●​ Bhakti movement: Absorbed Hindu aspects, Buddha as Vishnu ●​ Pravrajya: Ceremony for becoming novice, shaving head, ochre
avatar robes
 ●​ Gajalakshmi/Maya: Buddha’s mother, depicted with lotuses, ○​ Right Knowledge (Samyag-Jnana): No God, world without
elephants (Sanchi Stupa) creator, all objects have soul
○​ Right Conduct (Samyag-Mahavrata): Five great vows
●​ Five Great Vows (Pancha-Mahavrata, Monks):
Jainism
○​ Ahimsa: No killing/injury
○​ Asteya: No stealing
Introduction
○​ Satya: No lying
○​ Aparigraha: No property possession
●​ Jainism: Derived from ‘Jina’ (conqueror)
○​ Brahmacharya: Celibacy (introduced by Mahavira)
●​ Monks: Nirgranthas (free from bonds)
●​ Tirthankara Symbols:
●​ 1st Tirthankara: Risabhnath, sect founder
○​ Rishabhadeva (1st): Bull
●​ 24th Tirthankara: Mahavira, most influential
○​ Neminatha (22nd): Conch
○​ Parsvanatha (23rd): Snake
Vardhamana Mahavira ○​ Mahavira (24th): Lion
●​ Yajur Veda: Mentions Risabha, Ajitanatha, Aristanemi
●​ Born: 540 BC, Kundagrama near Vaishali (Basarh), North Bihar ●​ Tenets:
●​ Referred: Nigantha Nataputta in Buddhist texts ○​ Householders: Follow anuvrata (small vows)
●​ Father: Siddhartha, chief of Jnatrika clan ○​ Rejected: Vedic authority, existence of God
●​ Mother: Trishala, Lichchavi princess ○​ World: No beginning/end, follows eternal law
●​ Connections: Royal families of Magadha, Anga, Videha ○​ Karma: Shapes cycle of birth, rebirth
●​ Age 30: Left worldly life, became ascetic, discarded garments ○​ Salvation: Via asceticism, penance, renouncing world,
●​ Wandered: 12 years, met Gosala for 6 years, parted due to monastic life
differences ○​ Agamas: Sacred texts of Jain philosophy
●​ Age 42: Attained Kaivalya (complete knowledge), 13th year of ○​ Egalitarian: Rejects birth-based inequality, varna
wandering determined by actions
●​ Titles: Tirthankara, Jina, Mahavira (Great Conqueror) ○​ Women: Allowed in monastic order, cannot achieve
●​ Followers: Jaina salvation directly, must be reborn as men
●​ Propagated: Jainism for 30 years, Kosala, Magadha, Mithila,
Champa
Division of Jainism
●​ Death: Age 72, 468 BC, Pavapuri near Rajgir
●​ Schism: ~79/82 CE, 500 years after Mahavira’s death
Doctrines of Jainism ●​ Digambaras:
○​ Cause: Famine in Magadha, monks under Bhadrabahu
●​ Triratnas (Three Gems): went South, remained naked
○​ Right Faith (Samyag-Darshana): Belief in Mahavira’s
○​ Beliefs: No salvation for women, Mahavira unmarried, 19th
teachings Tirthankara Mallinath male
 ○​ Sub-Sects: Bisapanth, Terapanth, Taranapanth ○​ President: Devardhi Kshmasramana
(Samaiyapantha) ○​ Event: Added 12 Upangas (minor sections)
○​ Minor Sub-Sects: Gumanapantha, Totapantha
●​ Shwetambaras: Literature of Jainism
○​ Led by: Sthulabhadra, adopted white garments
○​ Beliefs: Salvation possible for women, Mahavira married, ●​ Languages: Apabhramsa, Prakrit, Ardha-Magadhi, influenced
19th Tirthankara Mallinath female regional languages (Sauraseni to Marathi)
○​ Sub-Sects: Murtipujaka, Sthanakvasi, Terapanth ●​ Aagam (Principle):
●​ Impact: Weakened Jainism in Magadha, strong in Gujarat, ○​ 12 Angas: Acharanga-Sutra, Sutrakrtanga, Sthananga,
Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Karnataka Samavayanga, Bhagavati Vyakhyaprajnapti,
Jnatrdharmakatha, Upasakadasah, Antakrddasah,
Philosophies of Jainism Anuttaraupapatikadasah, Prasnavyakarana, Vipaksruta,
Dristivada
●​ Dualism: Soul (jiva), matter (ajiva), their union creates karma, leads ○​ 12 Upanga: Describe universe, beings, astronomy, time,
to birth/rebirth cycle posthumous life
●​ Salvation: Severe austerities, self-mortification to free from karma ○​ 10 Prakiran: Supplements to major texts
●​ Soul: Rejects universal soul, present in animals, plants, rocks, water, ○​ 6 Ched Sutras: Rules for monks (Jitakalpa, Brihatkalpa,
natural objects Nishith, Mahnishith, Vyavhar, Aachar Dasha)
●​ Knowledge: Doctrine of Relativity (Syadavada), partial, relative to ○​ 4 Mool Sutra: Sermons, forest life, monk duties, Yam rules
standpoint (Dashvaikalik, Utaradhyayan, Shadavshayak,
●​ Anekantavada: Truth, reality complex, multiple perspectives Pindniryukti/Pakshik Sutra)
●​ Knowledge Types: ○​ 2 Chulika Sutras: Nandi-sutra, Anuyagadvara-Sutra
○​ Mediate (Paroksa): Via sensory organs, includes Mati (encyclopaedic, moral stories for monks)
(sensuous cognition), Shruta (from authority) ●​ Tamil Literature: Naladiyar, Palamoli, Jivaka Chinthamani,
○​ Immediate (Aparoksa): Without sensory organs, includes Yapperunkalam Karikai, Neelakesi
Avadhi (clairvoyance), Manahparyaya (telepathy), Kevala ●​ Books and Authors:
(omniscience) ○​ Kalpa Sutra: Bhadrabahu
○​ Lilavatisara: Acharya Jinaratna
Jain Councils ○​ Tattavartha Sutra: Umaswami (Sanskrit)
○​ Samayasara: Acharya Kundakunda
●​ 1st (300 BC): ○​ Yogasastra, Parishishta Parvan, Arhanniti: Hemachandra
○​ Place: Patliputra ○​ Ratnakaranda Sravakacara: Samantabhadra Swamy
○​ President: Sthulbhadra ○​ Shatkhandagama: Pushpadanta, Bhutabali
○​ Event: Compilation of 12 Angas (limbs) ○​ Sarvarthasiddhi: Pujyapada
●​ 2nd (512 AD): ○​ Trishasthilkshana Mahapurana: Jinasena
○​ Place: Vallabhi ○​ Syadvadmanjari: Mallisen
 ○​ Dravya Sangrah: Nemichandra ●​ Occupations: Trading, money-lending due to non-violence, linked to
○​ Paumacariyam Ramyana: Vimalsuri (Prakrit) urbanisation
●​ Jain Temples:
Patron Kings of Jainism ○​ Ranakpur (Rajasthan): Built 1437 AD by Darna Shah,
Svetambara, dedicated to Rishabhdev
●​ Magadh Empire: Bimbisara, Ajatasatru, Samprati, Chandragupta ○​ Mount Mangi Tungi (Maharashtra): Enshrines Tirthankara
Maurya, Bindusara images in Padmasana, Kayotsarga
●​ Kalinga: Kharavela, Hathigumpha inscription (Udayagiri hills, ○​ Shikharji (Jharkhand): Parasnath Hill, Digambara,
Bhubaneswar) Svetambara Tirtha, 20 Tirthankaras attained Moksha
●​ Kadamba: King Kakusthavarman ○​ Khajuraho (Madhya Pradesh): Jain temples in southeast
●​ Rashtrakuta: Amoghavarsha region
●​ Ganga: King Shivamara I, King Butuga II ○​ Dilawara (Mount Abu): Marble, built by Samanta
●​ Chalukya (Solanki): Kumarapala Vimalshah, Chalukya (Solanki) ruler Bhimdev I
○​ Sittanavasal Paintings: Depict Jain Samasvasarana
Decline of Jainism in India ○​ Caves: Ellora (Maharashtra), Udaygiri (Odisha),
Sittanavasal (Tamil Nadu)
●​ Causes:
○​ No royal patronage Important Terms Related to Jainism
○​ Digambara-Shwetambara division
○​ Limited missionary efforts ●​ Basadis: Jaina monastic establishment
○​ Factionalism within community ●​ Avadhijnana: Superhuman cognition
○​ Rigorous, austere practices ●​ Ganadharas: Chief disciples of Mahavira
●​ Siddha: Fully liberated
Important Facts Related to Jainism ●​ Pudgala: Aggregates of atoms with form, colour, taste, smell, touch
●​ Chaitanya: Consciousness
●​ Sallekhana/Santhara: Ritual fast to death, culmination of ascetic ●​ Mohaniya: Delusion
life ●​ Gunasthanas: Stages of purification
●​ Bahubali Statue: Built by Chamundaraya, 981 AD, ●​ Arhat: Entered Kevalajnana stage
Shravanabelagola, Karnataka, under Ganga ruler Rachamall IV ●​ Tirthankara: Arhat with teaching capability
●​ Bahubali: Son of Rishabhdev (1st Tirthankara)
●​ Mahamastak-abhishek: Festival every 12 years, Shravanabelagola Differences Between Jainism and Buddhism
●​ Chandragupta Maurya: Embraced Jainism, abdicated throne, lived
as ascetic, spread Jainism in Karnataka 38.​ God:
●​ Epigraphic evidence: Karnataka, 3rd century AD a.​ Buddhism: Neither accepted nor denied
●​ Basadis: Jaina monastic establishments, proliferated from 6th b.​ Jainism: Denies personal/creator God, God is soul free of
century AD, received royal land grants all Karmas
 39.​ Varna System: ●​ Tribal chiefs: Selected by larger group
a.​ Buddhism: Condemned ●​ Priestly class: Influence not prominent
b.​ Jainism: Did not condemn, varna by past-life virtues/sins, ●​ Military: Central standing army
liberation for lower castes
40.​ Path: Reasons for Rise of Large States
a.​ Buddhism: Middle path, avoid extremes
b.​ Jainism: Extreme penance, asceticism ●​ Location: Fertile Ganga plains, near iron production centres
41.​ Soul: ●​ Iron technology: Improved agriculture, surplus collection
a.​ Buddhism: No transmigration ●​ Surplus: Sustained military, administrative needs, enabled stable
b.​ Jainism: Believes in soul transmigration settlement
●​ Urban centres: Towns promoted allegiance to Janapada over tribe
Rise of Mahajanapadas
Mahajanapadas
Introduction
●​ Source: Anguttara Nikaya (Sutta-Pitaka), lists 16 Mahajanapadas
●​ Later Vedic Period: 900–600 BC ●​ Military: Tribal rulers maintained armies under Senapati
●​ Transition: Tribal polity (Jana) to territorial state (Janapada)
Mahajanapada Details
●​ Janapadas: Fought for resources, political dominance
●​ Janapada meaning: Land where Jana (people, clan, tribe) settles
●​ Magadha:
○​ Location: Modern Patna, Gaya
Monarchies
○​ Capital: Rajagriha/Girivraja
○​ Rulers: Haryanka Dynasty
●​ Administration: Centralised, governed by kings
●​ Anga:
●​ Kingship: Hereditary, based on primogeniture
○​ Location: Monghyr, Bhagalpur, Bihar
●​ Advisory bodies: Parishad (mostly Brahmins), Sabha
○​ Capital: Champa (Ganga-Champa confluence)
●​ Revenue: King claimed sole rights
○​ Features: Commercial centre, merchants sailed to
●​ Religion: Vedic orthodoxy, Brahmin priests provided legitimacy via
Suvarnabhumi (Southeast Asia)
rituals
●​ Vajji:
●​ Expansion: Magadh Empire brought janas under jurisdiction, grew
○​ Location: North of Ganga, Tirhut
into Mahajanapadas
○​ Capital: Vaishali (Basarh, North Bihar)
○​ Ruler: King Chetaka
Republics (Gana Sangha) ○​ Features: Confederacy of Lichchhavis, Jnatrikas, Vajjis;
Mahavira from Jnatrikas
●​ Decision-making: No single authority, collective by clan heads
●​ Mallas:
(Rajas)
○​ Location: Gangetic Plains, U.P.
 ○​ Capitals: Kushinara, Pava ○​ Features: Mahabharata conflict between Kuru clan
○​ Features: Buddha’s last meal at Pava, Mahaparinirvana at branches
Kusinara ●​ Panchala:
●​ Kashi: ○​ Location: Western U.P.
○​ Location: Varanasi, U.P. ○​ Capitals: Northern (Ahichchhatra, Bareilly), Southern
○​ Capital: Varanasi (between Varuna, Assi rivers) (Kampilya, Farukkhabad)
○​ Features: Incorporated into Kosala by King Kansa ○​ Features: Kanauj within kingdom
●​ Gandhara: ●​ Matsya:
○​ Location: North-western Pakistan ○​ Location: Jaipur, Alwar, Bharatpur, Rajasthan
○​ Capital: Takshashila ○​ Capital: Viratanagara
○​ Features: Trade, learning centre; conquered by Persians ○​ Founder: Virata
(6th century BC, Behistun Inscription) ●​ Shurasena:
●​ Kosala: ○​ Location: Braj region, U.P.
○​ Location: Eastern U.P., including Ayodhya ○​ Capital: Mathura (Yamuna banks)
○​ Capitals: Northern (Shravasti), Southern (Kushavati) ○​ Ruler: Avantipura (Buddha’s disciple)
○​ Ruler: Prasenjit (Buddha’s contemporary) ●​ Avanti:
○​ Features: Lumbini (Shakya republic), Buddha’s birthplace ○​ Location: Central Malwa
●​ Ashavaka/Assaka: ○​ Capitals: North (Ujjain), South (Mahishmati)
○​ Location: Between Godavari, Manjira rivers ○​ Ruler: Pradyota (Udayana’s father-in-law)
○​ Capital: Potali (Bodhan, Nizamabad, Telangana) ●​ Kamboja:
○​ Features: Only Mahajanapada south of Vindhya, in ○​ Location: Rajouri, Hajra (Kashmir), North-West Frontier
Dakshinapatha Province, Pakistan
●​ Cheti/Chedi: ○​ Capital: Pooncha
○​ Location: Eastern Bundelkhand ○​ Features: Famous for horses, horsemen; in Uttarapatha
○​ Capital: Shuktimati/Sotthivatinagara ●​ Power struggle: Magadha, Kosala, Vrijji, Avanti; Magadha emerged
○​ Ruler: Shishupala supreme under Bimbisara (Haryanka)
●​ Vatsa:
○​ Location: Yamuna banks
The Rise and Growth of the Magadha Empire
○​ Capital: Kaushambi (Ganga-Yamuna confluence,
Allahabad)
Introduction
○​ Ruler: Udayana
○​ Features: Known for fine cotton textiles
●​ Period: 6th–3rd century BC (second urbanization)
●​ Kuru:
●​ Dynasties: Haryanka, Shishunaga, Nanda
○​ Location: Western U.P.
●​ Features: Agricultural surplus, crafts, trade, population growth,
○​ Capital: Indraprastha
towns (second urbanization post-Harappan)
Sources of Information ■​ Defeated Prasenjit (Kosala), annexed Kosala,
retained Kashi
●​ Vedic texts: Brahmanas, Upanishads (Janapadas, Mahajanapadas) ■​ Defeated Chetak (Vaishali), annexed Lichchhavis
●​ Buddhist texts: Vinaya Pitaka, Sutta Pitaka, Abhidhamma Pitaka ■​ Defeated Mallas
●​ Jain text: Bhagawati Sutra (lists Mahajanapadas) ○​ Military weapons:
●​ Archaeological evidence: Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW) ■​ Catapults (Mahashilakantaka)
pottery ■​ Chariot with mace (Rathamusala)
●​ Sites: Ahichchhatra, Hastinapur, Kausambi, Ujjaini ○​ Fortification: Strengthened Rajagriha against Avanti threat
○​ Buddhist connection: Met Buddha, arranged 1st Buddhist
Haryanka Dynasty Council (483 BC)
○​ Successor: Son Udayin
●​ Capital: Rajagriha ●​ Udayabhadra (Udayin) (460–444 BC):
●​ Founder: Unknown, likely Bimbisara’s grandfather ○​ Capital: Founded Pataliputra (Ganga-Son confluence,
Patna)
Important Rulers
Shishunaga Dynasty (~413–345 BC)
●​ Bimbisara (544–492 BC):
○​ Contemporaries: Buddha, Mahavira Important Rulers
○​ Army: First king with regular standing army
○​ Conflicts: ●​ Shishunaga:
■​ Rivalry with Avanti’s Pradyota, later allies ○​ Background: Amatya (minister) under Nāgadāsaka (last
■​ Sent physician Jivaka to Ujjain for Pradyota’s Haryanka)
jaundice ○​ Founded: 413 BC
■​ Conquered Anga, defeated Brahmadatta (Champa ○​ Capital: Temporarily Vaishali
key for trade) ○​ Conquests: Defeated Avanti, ended Magadha-Avanti
○​ Matrimonial alliances: rivalry
■​ 1st wife: Mahakoshala (Kosala, Prasenjit’s sister), ○​ Successor: Son Kalasoka
Kashi as dowry ●​ Kalasoka:
■​ 2nd wife: Lichchhavi Princess Chellana (Vaishali), ○​ Alias: Kakarvarna (Puranas)
mother of Ajatashatru ○​ Event: Conducted 2nd Buddhist Council (Vaishali)
■​ 3rd wife: Madra clan chief’s daughter (Punjab) ○​ End: Throne usurped by Mahapadma Nanda
○​ Death: Killed, succeeded by Ajatashatru
●​ Ajatashatru (492–460 BC): Nanda Dynasty (345–321 BC)
○​ Policy: Aggressive expansion via military conquest
○​ Conflicts: Important Rulers
 ●​ Mahapadma Nanda: ○​ Assistants: Ayuktas
○​ Alias: Ugrasena (large army) ○​ Recruitment: Mostly Brahmanas
○​ Lineage: ○​ Example: Vassakara (enabled Ajatashatru’s Vajji conquest,
■​ Brahmanical texts: Non-Kshatriya caste Mahaparinibbana Sutta)
■​ Buddhist texts: Annatakula (unknown lineage) ●​ Laws:
○​ Titles: Ekarat (sole sovereign), Sarva-kshatrantaka ○​ System: Legal, judicial replaced tribal laws
(Kshatriya uprooter) ○​ Hierarchy: Social hierarchy influenced laws
○​ Conquests: Added Kalinga, brought Jina image as trophy; ○​ Punishments: Severe for Shudras against upper varnas,
acquired Kosala lenient against Shudras
○​ Successors: Eight sons (Navanandas/Nine Nandas) ○​ Basis: Dharmashastras
●​ Dhana Nanda: ○​ Methods: Scourging, beheading
○​ Alias: Agrammes/Xandrames (Diodorus)
○​ Army: Vast Society Under the Magadh Empire
○​ Innovation: Nandopakramani (measuring standard)
○​ Event: Alexander’s invasion (327–325 BC) ●​ Social hierarchy:
●​ Inscription: Hathigumpha (Udayagiri, Odisha), records ○​ Varnas: Brahmanas, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, Shudras
Mahapadma Nanda’s aqueduct ○​ Shudras: Excluded from high positions, slaves, artisans,
labourers
Causes of Magadha’s Success ○​ Untouchables: Below Shudras, lived on fringes, menial jobs,
own language
●​ Rulers: Ambitious (Bimbisara, Ajatashatru, Mahapadma Nanda), ●​ Family relations:
used diplomacy, military ○​ Kinship: Kula (patrilineal), Natakas (maternal, paternal
●​ Geographical advantages: relatives), Nati, Nati-Kulani (extended kin)
○​ Iron ore: Enabled effective weapons ●​ Status of women:
○​ Capitals: Rajgir (hill-fortified), Pataliputra (water fort, ○​ Society: Patriarchal, inferior status
river-surrounded) ○​ Caste: Endogamous, increased subjugation
●​ Central position: Gangetic plains ○​ Preference: Sons for lineage, funerary rites
○​ Resources: Timber, elephants from southern forests
○​ Military: First to use elephants on large scale Economy Under the Magadh Empire
○​ Boats: Timber-aided manufacturing, expansion
●​ Towns and cities:
Administration Under the Magadha Empire ○​ Cause: Agricultural surplus, crafts, trade, population
growth (second urbanization)
●​ Officials: ○​ Types:
○​ Mahamatras/Amatyas: Ministers (mantrin), commanders ■​ Pura/Nagara: Fortified town/city
(Senanayaka), judges, accountants ■​ Nagarka: Small town
 ■​ Nigama: Market town ○​ Exempt: Kshatriyas, Brahmanas
○​ Examples: ○​ Burden: Vaishyas/Grihapatis (peasants)
■​ Political/administrative: Rajgriha, Shravasti, ○​ Bali: Compulsory, 1/6th produce
Kaushambi, Champa ○​ Collection: Royal agents (Balisadhakas), village headmen
■​ Trade/commerce: Ujjain, Taxila ○​ Labour: Forced for royal projects; artisans worked 1
■​ Holy: Vaishali day/month for king
●​ Village settlement: ○​ Officials: Kammikas (customs), Shaulkika/Shulkadhyaksha
○​ Source: Vinaya Pitaka (tolls)
○​ Types: ○​ Grants: Brahmadeyas (Brahmanas), Setthis (merchants),
■​ Typical: Mixed castes, headed by revenue authority only
Gramabhojaka/Gramini/Gramakas ●​ Agriculture:
■​ Suburban (craft): Carpenter (Vaddhaki-grama), ○​ Main activity: Villages
Reedmaker (Nalakaragrama), Saltmaker ○​ Techniques: Paddy transplantation, iron ploughshare
(Lonakara-grama) ○​ Crops: Rice (staple), barley, pulses, millets, cotton,
■​ Border: Aramika-grama sugarcane
●​ Trade and transportation: ○​ Labour: Dasas, Karmakaras (by Grihapatis)
○​ Location: Towns on riverbanks, trade routes ○​ Landowners: Grihapatis (rich), Kassakas/Krishakas (small)
○​ Routes: ○​ Iron: Cleared forests, hard soil; tools from Kausambi
■​ Uttarapatha: North-west to Tamralipti (Bay of ○​ Mines: Mayurbhanj, Singhbhum
Bengal) ●​ Guild system:
■​ Dakshinapatha: Pataliputra to Pratishthana, ○​ Crafts: Specialised, hereditary
western coast ports ○​ Leadership: Headman
○​ Maritime trade: ○​ Location: Fixed town localities
■​ Eastern: Bengal-Myanmar ○​ Merchant street: Vessa
■​ Western: Taxila-Afghanistan, Iran, Mesopotamia
○​ Protection: Rajabhatas (royal officials) Iranian Invasion and Contact
○​ Imports: Gold, lapis lazuli, jade, silver
○​ Exports: Crafts, textiles, sandalwood, pearls ●​ Period: 6th century BC
●​ Money: ●​ Cause: Fertile resources, weak leadership, political disunity
○​ Source: Panini’s Ashtadhyayi (Kambojas, Gandharas)
○​ Terms: Vetan (wage), Vaitanika (wage-earners) ●​ Route: Hindu Kush mountains
○​ Coins: Punch-marked (silver, copper), 6th century BC, ●​ Achaemenian invasion:
issued by Mahajanapadas ○​ Cyrus (558–529 BC): First invader
○​ Symbols: Hill, tree, bull, fish, crescent, elephant ○​ Darius: Annexed Punjab (516 BC)
●​ Taxation: ○​ Duration: Until Alexander’s invasion
○​ Payment: Cash, kind ○​ Site: Takshashila (Taxila), Achaemenid Empire
 ○​ Excavation: Sir John Marshall (1940s) d.​ Advance: Reached Beas River
○​ Text: Panini’s Ashtadhyayi (6th–5th century BC, Taxila) e.​ Retreat: Army refused further march (Magadha’s power,
war-weariness, disease, homesickness)
Results of Indo-Iranian Contact f.​ Death: Typhoid, Babylon
44.​ Effects:
●​ Duration: ~2 centuries a.​ Political:
●​ Economic impacts: i.​ Greek satrapies in north-western India
○​ Trade: Enhanced, Persian coins in North-West Frontier ii.​ Greek settlements: Alexandria (Sindh, Kabul),
○​ Coins: Persian sigloi (silver), karsa (Indian term, Persian Boukephala (Jhelum, Peshawar)
origin) iii.​ Weakened north-west states, aided Maurya
●​ Cultural impacts: expansion
○​ Script: Kharoshthi (Aramaic-derived, right-to-left) b.​ Trade: Direct Europe-South Asia contact, four routes (three
○​ Ashoka’s edicts: Mansehra, Sahbazgarhi (Kharoshthi) land, one sea
○​ Architecture: Maurya sculpture, Ashoka’s bell-shaped
capitals (Sarnath Lion, Rampurva Bull)
○​ Terms: Iranian “dipi” as Ashokan “lipi”
○​ Greek knowledge: India’s wealth via Iranians, spurred
Alexander’s invasion
○​ Linguistic similarities: Rig Veda, Avesta
○​ Inscription: Bogaz Koi (1380 BC, Syria), treaty mentions
Rig Vedic gods (Indara, Uruvna, Mitira, Nasatiya)

Alexander’s Invasion of India (327–326 BC)

42.​ Reasons:
a.​ Greek-Iranian conflict: 4th century AD, Alexander defeated
Persians
b.​ Disunity: North-West India’s independent monarchies,
tribal republics (Taxila, Porus’ Punjab, Gandhara)
c.​ Route: Unguarded Khyber Pass
d.​ Wealth: Described by Herodotus
43.​ Campaign:
a.​ Start: 326 BC (Dhana Nanda’s reign), crossed Khyber Pass
b.​ Resistance: Porus at Jhelum (Battle of Hydaspes)
c.​ Outcome: Defeated Porus, restored kingdom, impressed by
valour
Mauryan Empire ●​ Greek name: Sandrakottus
●​ Conquests:
○​ Defeated Greek prefects (Alexander’s remnants)
Introduction
○​ Defeated Seleucus (301 BC), acquired eastern Afghanistan,
Baluchistan, west of Indus
●​ Period: 321 BC–185 BC
●​ Renunciation: Became Jain ascetic, Chandragiri, Sravanabelagola,
●​ Significance: First subcontinental empire, innovative governance
Karnataka (Jain tradition)
strategies

Chanakya
Sources to Study
●​ Aliases: Kautilya, Vishnugupta
Archaeological Sources ●​ Role: Chief advisor to Chandragupta
●​ Work: Authored Arthashastra (political strategy, governance)
●​ Coins: Punch-marked coins ●​ Mention: Popular oral tradition, not in contemporary Jain/Buddhist
●​ Pottery: Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW) texts
●​ Architecture: Wooden Palace of Chandragupta Maurya, Pataliputra ●​ Play: Mudrarakshasa by Visakhadatta (Gupta period), narrates
●​ Inscriptions: Ashokan inscriptions, edicts Chandragupta’s accession
●​ Inscription: Junagarh Inscription of Rudradaman I
Megasthenes
Literary Sources
●​ Role: Greek ambassador, sent by Seleucus Nikator
●​ Books: ●​ Location: Lived in Pataliputra
○​ ‘Indika’ by Megasthenes ●​ Work: Wrote ‘Indika’ (describes subcontinent’s features)
○​ ‘Arthashastra’ by Kautilya ●​ Observations:
○​ ‘Mudra Rakshasa’ by Visakha Datta ○​ No famine in India, no food scarcity
○​ Dharmashastra texts ○​ Seven castes: artisans, farmers, warriors, philosophers,
○​ Puranas herders, magistrates, council members
○​ Buddhist texts: Jataka Stories, Deepvamsa, Mahavamsa,
Divyavadan War and Conquest

Chandragupta Maurya ●​ Defeated: Greek prefects, Seleucus

●​ Peace agreement: Seleucus ceded eastern Afghanistan,
●​ Reign: Established Maurya rule, 321 BC Baluchistan, west of Indus
●​ Overthrew: Nanda dynasty
●​ Ally: Chanakya (Kautilya) Territorial Expansion
 ●​ Regions: Bihar, Orissa, Bengal, western/northwestern India, ○​ Sudarshana Lake: Constructed 4th century BC
Deccan (Chandragupta), completed under Ashoka, repaired by
●​ Exclusions: Kerala, Tamil Nadu, parts of northeastern India Rudradaman (150 AD)
●​ Army: Vast, per Justin (Greek writer)
Bindusara
Administration
●​ Reign: 297–272 BC
●​ Sources: Indika, Arthashastra ●​ Succession: Son of Chandragupta
●​ Departments: ~24, controlling social, economic activities near ●​ Relations: Close ties with Greek states (West Asia)
capital ●​ Advisors: Chanakya, other ministers
●​ Provinces: Led by royal family members, divided into smaller units ●​ Death: 272 BC
●​ Army: ●​ Successor: Ashoka (not chosen successor)
○​ Size: Larger than Nandas
○​ Composition: Foot soldiers, cavalry, elephants, chariots,
navy (per Pliny) Ashoka
○​ Management: 30 officers, 6 committees (army, cavalry,
elephants, chariots, navy, transport) ●​ Reign: 268–231 BC
○​ Detectives: Gudhapurushas (Sansthan: stationary, ●​ Succession: After 4-year dispute (post-Bindusara)
Sanchari: wandering) ●​ Religion: Converted to Buddhism, adopted pacifist policy
●​ Taxation: ●​ Title: Chakravartin (Buddhist texts)
○​ Agriculture: State-controlled new lands, cultivators, Sudra ●​ Unification: One dharma, one language (Prakrit), one script
labourers (Brahmi)
○​ Taxes: 1/4 to 1/6 of produce, irrigation charges ●​ Death: 231 BC
(Setubandha), tolls at town gates ●​ End: Mauryan Empire disintegrated, Pushyamitra Sunga killed last
○​ Monopolies: Mining, liquor sales, arms manufacturing king Brihadratha

The Junagadh Inscription Inscriptions

●​ Date: 130–150 CE ●​ Features: First Indian king to communicate via inscriptions

●​ Location: Girnar, Gujarat ●​ Locations: Ancient highways, Indian subcontinent, Kandahar
●​ Ruler: Rudradaman (Shaka) (Afghanistan)
●​ Mauryan reference: Pushyagupta (provincial governor, Rashtriya) ●​ Materials: Rocks, polished stone pillars, caves
under Chandragupta ●​ Languages: Magadhi, Prakrit (Brahmi script); Greek, Aramaic
●​ Details: (Kandahar); Kharosthi (northwest Pakistan)
○​ Mauryan extent: Reached Gujarat ●​ Types: 33 edicts (14 Major Rock Edicts, 2 Kalinga Edicts, 7 Pillar
Edicts, Minor Rock Edicts, Minor Pillar Inscriptions)
 ●​ Major Rock Edicts locations: Kandahar, Shahbazgarhi, Mansehra Kalinga War
(Pakistan), Uttarakhand, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Odisha, Karnataka,
Kurnool (Andhra Pradesh) ●​ Nature: Punitive war against Kalinga (broke from Magadha, per
●​ Minor Pillar Inscriptions: Nepal (near Lumbini) Hathigumpha inscription)
●​ Decipherment: James Prinsep, 1837 (Brahmi, Kharosthi) ●​ Effects:
●​ Names of Ashoka: ○​ Brutality: Shifted Ashoka to cultural conquest
○​ Piyadassi: Dipavamsa, Kandhar major edict (Dhammaghosha) from physical occupation (Bherighosha)
○​ Ashoka Maurya: Junagarh Rock edict ○​ Policy: Ideological conquest, welfare for men/animals
○​ Ashoka Vardhana: Puranas ○​ No further wars: Despite resources
○​ Piyadassi rajamagadh: Bhabru-Bairat ○​ Peace missions: Sent ambassadors to Greek kingdoms
○​ Ashoka: Maski ○​ Retained: Kalinga territory, maintained army
○​ Devanampriya Ashoka: Gurjara
○​ Raja Ashoka: Nittur
○​ Dewanampiya Piyadassi: Udegolum
○​ Ashoka: Barabar caves

Rock and Pillar Edicts Contemporary Rulers

●​ Major Rock Edict 1: Prohibits animal sacrifice, festive gathering ●​ Antiochus II Theos: Syria, 260–246 BC (Seleucus Nikator’s
holidays; mentions Cholas, Pandyas, Satyaputras, Keralaputras grandson)
●​ Major Rock Edict 2: State to provide medical care, hospitals for ●​ Ptolemy III Philadelphus: Egypt, 285–247 BC
humans/animals; mentions Cholas, Pandyas, Satyaputras, ●​ Antigonus Gonatus: Macedonia, 276–239 BC
Keralaputras ●​ Magas: Cyrene
●​ Major Rock Edict 3: Yuktas, Pradesikas to tour every 5 years for ●​ Alexander: Epirus
dhamma instruction
●​ Major Rock Edict 6: King to be informed of people’s conditions Religious Policy
●​ Major Rock Edicts 7, 12: Religious co-existence, honour ascetics
●​ Major Rock Edict 13: Mentions Kalinga war, promotes conquest by ●​ Tolerance: Gifts to non-Buddhist, anti-Buddhist sects (e.g., Ajivika,
Dhamma Barabar caves)
●​ Kalinga Rock Edict 1: Officials to be impartial, just; officer sent ●​ Dharmayatras: Visited Buddhist shrines
every 5 years ●​ Event: Convened 3rd Buddhist Sangha, 250 BC, Pataliputra
●​ Maski Edict: Ashoka as ‘Devanampiya’ ●​ Outcome: Expanded Buddhism via missionaries
●​ Pillar Edicts: 7 (Meerut-Delhi, Topra-Delhi, Allahabad, ●​ Society: Harmonious coexistence of religions, castes, communities
Lauriya-Nandangarh, Lauriya-Areraj, Rampurva)
●​ Minor Pillar Edicts: 4 (Sanchi, Sarnath, Allahabad)
Missionary Activities
●​ Terai Pillar Edicts: 2 (Rummindei/Lumbini, Nigalisagar)
 ●​ Regions: Sri Lanka, Burma, Central Asia Mauryan Administration
●​ Missionaries: Mahinda, Sanghamitta (Ashoka’s children) to Sri
Lanka ●​ Law: Kings followed Dharmasastras, local customs
●​ Relic: Bodhi tree branch to Sri Lanka ●​ Kautilya: King as Dharmapravartaka (promulgator of social order)
●​ Evidence: Brahmi inscriptions (2nd–1st century BC, Sri Lanka) ●​ Ashoka: Affirmed supremacy of royal orders
●​ Central administration:
Ashoka’s Administration ○​ Capital: Pataliputra, directly administered
○​ Bureaucracy: Extensive, superintendents, subordinate
●​ Kingship: Paternal (subjects as children) officers
●​ Policy: Promoted Dhamma (Kandahar inscription) ○​ Leadership: King, council of ministers, purohita,
●​ Officers: mahamatriyas
○​ Rajukas: Administered justice ○​ Saptanga theory (Kautilya): Svamin, Durg, Janapada,
○​ Dharma-mahamatras: Propagated dharma Danda/Bala, Sena, Amatya, Kosha, Mitra
●​ Restrictions: Prohibited animal slaughter in capital, killing certain ○​ Espionage: Spies in disguise (Arthashastra)
birds/animals ●​ Hierarchy and salaries:
●​ Dhamma objectives: ○​ Officials: Tirthas, paid in cash
○​ Social order: Obey parents, respect Brahmanas, Buddhist ○​ Salaries: 48,000 panas (Mantrin, Purohita, Senapati,
monks Yuvaraja) to 10–60 panas (lowest)
○​ Mercy: To slaves, servants ○​ Pana: 3/4 tola
○​ Goal: Heaven, not nirvana ●​ Provincial administration:
●​ Rotation: Officers in Tosali (Kalinga), Ujjain, Taxila to check ○​ Governors: Royal princes
oppression ○​ System: Uniform revenue, judicial, bureaucratic
●​ Rummindei Pillar Inscription: governance
○​ Location: Lumbini, Nepal ○​ Provinces:
○​ Script: Brahmi ■​ Uttarapatha: Taxila
○​ Language: Prakrit ■​ Avanti: Ujjain
○​ Details: Ashoka worshipped, Shakyamuni’s birthplace ■​ Prachi: Pataliputra
■​ Kalinga: Toshali
Causes of Decline ■​ Dakshinapatha: Suvarnagiri
●​ District and village administration:
●​ Brahmanical reaction: Anti-sacrifice stance reduced Brahmin gifts ○​ District: Sthanika
●​ Financial strain: Large army, bureaucracy, Buddhist monk grants ○​ Village: Gopas (5–10 villages), Gramani (central appointee),
●​ Provincial revolts: Oppressive rule (e.g., Taxila’s Dushtamatyas village elders
under Bindusara) ○​ Urban: Nagarika
●​ Missionary focus: Neglected northwest frontier protection ●​ Judicial administration:
●​ Economic growth: New kingdoms emerged ○​ Courts: In major towns
 ○​ Types: ○​ Farms: State-maintained
■​ Dharmasthiya: Civil law (marriage, inheritance), 3 ○​ Arthashastra on slaves:
judges, 3 Amatyas ■​ Child of female slave by master: Child, mother free
■​ Kantakasodhana: Anti-social elements, crimes, 3 ■​ Son of female slave by master: Legal status as
judges, 3 Amatyas, spy network master’s son
○​ Punishments: Severe ○​ Megasthenes: No slaves noticed
●​ Crafts and goods:
○​ Textiles: Spinning, weaving (cotton), regions: Kasi, Vanga,
Economy
Kamarupa, Madurai
○​ Royal attire: Gold, silver embroidery
●​ Level: Commercial craft production beyond subsistence
○​ Silk: Chinese, indicates trade
●​ Regulation: Superintendents (Adhyakshas) for agriculture, trade,
○​ Metalworks: Iron, copper
crafts, mining
○​ Woodwork: Ship-building, carts, chariots, houses
●​ Revenue sources:
○​ Luxury goods: Gold, silver articles, jewellery, perfumes,
○​ Agriculture: State-controlled production, marketing
carved ivory
○​ Levies: Customs, tolls, land tax (Bhaga), irrigation, urban
○​ Organization: Hereditary, urban-based, royal workshops
homes, coinage
○​ Guilds: Led by Pamukha, Jettha, organized as Seni
○​ Monopolies: Sita (crown land), forests, mines, salt
○​ Disputes: Resolved by Mahasetthi
●​ Taxation system:
●​ Trade:
○​ Complexity: Assessment-focused
○​ Markets: Village, district, inter-city, inter-kingdom
○​ Officers:
○​ Transport: Rivers (Gangetic plains), roads (to Vidisha,
■​ Samaharta: Collector-general, supervised revenue
Ujjain)
sources
○​ Caravans: Led by Mahasarthavaha
■​ Sannidhata: Chief custodian, treasury, storehouse
○​ Regulation: Urban markets, craftsmen monitored
○​ Collection: In kind, rural storehouses for famine relief
○​ Overseas: Sri Lanka, Burma, Malay Archipelago (small
●​ Currency and market exchange:
ships)
○​ Currency: Punch-marked silver coins (Pana), Karshpana
○​ Ports: Tamralipti (east), Bharoch/Bharukachch, Supara
○​ Features: No issuing authority, no Mauryan symbols
(west)
○​ Usage: Tax collection, officer payments
○​ Exports to Egypt: Indigo, ivory, tortoise shell, pearls,
●​ Agriculture:
perfumes, rare woods
○​ Revenue: Highest share
○​ Sources: Buddhist Jataka tales, Greek texts
○​ Crops: Food grains, sugarcane, cotton
○​ Observations (Megasthenes): Two crops annually, fertile
soil, sugarcane (reed producing honey), cotton (wool tree) Spread of Material Culture
○​ Irrigation: State-provided, officers inspected channels
○​ Labour: Slaves, hired workers (dasa-karmakaras), Kalinga ●​ Features: Iron use, punch-marked coins, NBPW, burnt bricks, ring
war captives wells, towns in northeastern India
 ●​ Settlements: Established with Vaisyas, Sudra labourers Important Officers
●​ Support: Tax remission, cattle, seeds, money
●​ Innovation: Soak pits, ring wells, enabled non-river settlements ●​ Sitadhyaksha: Supervised agriculture
●​ Pataliputra: ●​ Bandhanagaradhyaksha: Jail
○​ Description: Large, wealthy, Ganga-Son confluence ●​ Pautavadhyaksha: Weights and measures
(Arrian) ●​ Lohadhyaksha, Sauvarnika: Manufactured goods
○​ Architecture: Grand palaces, many-pillared hall (Ashoka) ●​ Nava Adhyaksha: Ships
○​ Administration: 6 committees (5 members each) for ●​ Annapala: Food grains
sanitation, foreigners, birth/death, weights/measures ●​ Koshadhyaksha: Treasury
○​ Comparison: As splendid as Iran’s capital (Megasthenes) ●​ Nayaka: Trade and commerce
●​ Panyadhyaksha: Police
●​ Dandapala: City security
●​ Sulkaadhyaksha: Tolls
●​ Durgapal: Royal fort
●​ Akaradhyaksha: Mining
●​ Karmantika: Industries, factories
●​ Vyabharika: Chief judge
●​ Kupyadhyaksha: Forest

Art and Culture

Central Asian Contact
●​ Masonry: Stone introduced on large scale
●​ Sculptures:
Introduction
○​ Rock-cut elephant: Dhauli, Odisha, 272–231 BC, earliest
Buddhist sculpture
●​ Period: Post-Mauryan
○​ Sanchi stupa: Stone sculptures
●​ Political shift: Magadha to North-Western India
●​ Pillars:
●​ Eastern/Central India: Shungas, Kanvas, Satavahanas
○​ Material: Chunar stone, polished (like NBPW)
●​ North-Western India: Central Asian dynasties (Kushans prominent)
○​ Structure: Single sandstone, capital joined on top
○​ Sites: Kumrhar (Patna), 80-pillared hall fragments
●​ Literature: Indo-Greeks
○​ Languages: Pali (Buddhist, Jain texts)
○​ Arthashastra: Notes performing arts (music, bards, dance, Early Greek Contact with India
theatre)
●​ Art: Sanchi sculptures depict royal processions, cities ●​ Alexander’s invasion: 327–325 BC, north-western India
 ●​ Seleucus Nicator: Ruled Turkey to Indus River, defeated by ●​ Seleucid Empire: Weakened post-250 BC
Chandragupta Maurya ●​ Antiochus III: Defeated Subhagasena, Kabul River
●​ Alliance: Chandragupta-Seleucus marriage alliance ●​ Great Wall of China: Pushed Scythians to Greek, Parthian regions
●​ Bindusara: Relations with Antiochus of Syria ●​ Bactrian Greeks: Moved to India
●​ Ashokan Rock Edict 13: Mentions five Yona/Yavana kings
●​ Mauryan administration: Inspired by Persian, Greek systems Indo-Greek Coins
●​ Exports: Ivory, pearls, indigo, spikenard, malabathrum
●​ Feature: Distinguishing feature of Indo-Greeks
Important Rulers ●​ Firsts: Issued gold coins, coins attributed to kings
●​ Design: King’s portrait, name on one side
●​ Alias: Indo-Bactrians, Yavana Kingdom
●​ Region: Northwestern India, Afghanistan, Pakistan, Iran Arrival of Central Asian Tribes
●​ Invasion: First to invade India, reached Ayodhya (Saketa),
Pataliputra ●​ Tribes: Sakas (Scythians), Parthians (Pahlavas), Kushanas
●​ Demetrius II (180 BC): (Yueh-chi/Yuezhi)
○​ First known Indo-Greek king ●​ Cause: Migrations, political developments in Central Asia
○​ Attacked India: 180 BC ●​ Yueh-chi: Pushed westward by Great Wall of China
○​ Conflict: Pushyamitra Shunga ●​ Sakas: Pushed to eastern Iran by Yueh-chi
○​ Expansion: Bactrian rule south of Hindu Kush ●​ Parthians: Established kingdom (58 BC, Vonones)
○​ Coins: Bilingual square, Greek (obverse), Kharosthi
(reverse)
The Shakas
●​ Menander (165/145–130 BC):
○​ Most important Indo-Greek ruler
●​ Origin: Pushed from eastern Iran by Mithradates (188–123 BC)
○​ Region: Kabul, Indus valleys to western Uttar Pradesh
●​ Region: Indus Valley to Saurashtra
○​ Titles: King, Soter (saviour) on coins
●​ Branches: Afghanistan, Punjab, Mathura, Western India, Upper
○​ Religion: Embraced Buddhism (guided by Nagasena)
Deccan
○​ Text: Milinda Panho (dialogue with Nagasena)
●​ First ruler: Maues/Moga (20 BC–22 AD)
○​ Capital: Sakala (Sialkot, Pakistan)
○​ Region: Gandhara
○​ Conquests: Attacked Pataliputra (unconsolidated),
●​ Successor: Azes
defeated by Kharavela (Hathigumpha Inscription)
○​ Conquests: Destroyed Indo-Greek kingdoms, extended to
●​ Antialcidas:
Mathura
○​ Emissary: Heliodorus, sent to Bhagabhadra’s court
○​ Monument: Garuda-Dhvaja pillar, Vidisha (Garuda figure)
○​ Religion: Heliodorus adopted Vaishnavism
Administration

●​ Governors: Kshatrapas/Satraps, often independent

Causes of Indo-Greek Invasion
 ●​ Rudradaman I (130–150 AD): Dynasties within Kushanas
○​ Region: Sindh, Gujarat, Konkan, Narmada Valley, Malwa,
Kathiawar ●​ First Dynasty (50 AD):
○​ Works: Repaired Sudarshana Lake ○​ Rulers: Kadphises I, Kadphises II
○​ Conquest: Defeated Satavahanas ○​ Kadphises I:
○​ Inscription: Junagadh rock, first long Sanskrit inscription ■​ Conquest: Afghanistan
○​ Kadphises II:
Society ■​ Coins: Issued gold coins, high gold content
■​ Expansion: Gandhara, Punjab, Ganga-Jumna
●​ Names: Adopted Hindu names doab, Mathura
●​ Religion: Hindu beliefs, coins with Hindu gods ●​ Second Dynasty:
●​ Status: Anirvasita (pure) Shudras (Patanjali’s Mahabhasya) ○​ Founder: Kanishka
●​ Decline: Expelled by Vikramaditya of Ujjain (57–58 BC) ○​ Expansion: Upper India, lower Indus basin
○​ Title: Vikramaditya
○​ Era: Vikrama Samvat (57 BC) Kanishka

●​ Relation: Son of Kadphises II

The Parthians (Pahlavas)
●​ Title: Devputra (Rabatak Inscription)
●​ Appearance: Peaked helmet, belted tunic, overcoat, boots (coins,
●​ Origin: Iran, migrated to India
headless statue, Mathura)
●​ Succession: Followed Shakas
●​ Era: Shaka era (78 AD), used in Indian National Calendar
●​ Mention: Shaka-Pahlavas in Sanskrit texts
●​ Region: Central Asia, Afghanistan, north-western India, Ganga
●​ Presence: Limited compared to Greeks, Shakas
valley, Malwa, Varanasi, Kaushambi, Shravasti, Sanchi
●​ Gondophernes (1st century AD):
●​ Centre: Bactria (Bactrian language in coins, inscriptions)
○​ Conquests: Displaced Shakas, conquered Kabul (43 AD)
●​ Religion:
○​ Loss: Kabul to Kushanas
○​ Patronized: Buddhism, 4th Buddhist Council (Kundalvana,
Kashmir), finalized Mahayana doctrines
The Kushanas ○​ Inscriptions: Copper, preserved in stupa
○​ Philosophers: Asvaghosha, Parsva, Vasumitra, Nagarjuna
●​ Clan: One of five Yueh-chi clans ○​ Architecture: Massive stupa in Peshawar
●​ Alias: Yuechis, Tocharians ○​ Missions: Supported Buddhist missions to China
●​ Succession: Followed Parthians, Scythians ○​ Coins: Indian, Greek, Zoroastrian deities
●​ Origin: North Central Asia near China ●​ Conquests: Magadha, Kashmir, Khotan (Sinkiang)
●​ Region: Bactria, Oxus River to Ganges, Khorasan, Iran,
Afghanistan, Pakistan, northern India Decline of the Kushan Empire
●​ Capitals: Purushpura (Peshawar), Mathura
 ●​ Period: Mid-3rd century Improved Warfare
●​ Cause: Sassanians (Iran) overtook Afghanistan, west of Indus
●​ Outcome: Satraps became independent rulers ●​ Innovations: Better cavalry, large-scale horse riding
●​ Attire: Turban, tunic, trousers, long coats, caps, helmets, boots
●​ Advantage: Warfare in Iran, Afghanistan, Pakistan, India
Socio-Cultural Impact of Central Asian Contact

Society
Polity
●​ Indianization: Central Asian rulers as Kshatriyas
●​ Organization: Feudal, imposed on native princes
●​ Status: Second-class Kshatriyas (Manu)
●​ Satrap system: Introduced by Sakas, Parthians (Achaemenid,
●​ Religion: Revered Shiva, Vishnu, Buddha
Seleucid model)
●​ Coins: Images of Shiva, Vishnu; Vasudeva (Krishna synonym)
●​ Dual rule: Hereditary, father-son joint rule, less centralization
worshipped Vishnu
●​ Governorship: Military, by Strategos
●​ Mahayana Buddhism:
○​ Roles: Maintain ruler power, block invasions
○​ Origin: Trade, Central Asian influence
●​ Titles: King of kings, Caesar, lord of all lands, sons of God
○​ Feature: Buddha worship in human form
○​ Contrast: Original Buddhism (puritanical, abstract)
Economy

Art and Architecture

●​ Gold source: Altai mountains, Roman Empire trade
●​ Coins:
●​ Patronage: Royal, Mahayana Buddhism
○​ Indo-Greeks: First gold coins, high quality, Roman weight
●​ Art schools: Gandhara, Mathura
standards
●​ Influence: Gandhara art on Mathura
○​ Kushanas: Copper coins imitated Roman coins, largest
●​ Sculptures: Buddha, Kanishka’s headless statue (Mathura)
copper coin production
●​ Pottery: Plain, polished redware
○​ Greek coins: Improved over punch-marked coins
●​ Trade: Controlled Silk Route (China to Western Asia), toll collection
●​ Agriculture: Large-scale irrigation (Pakistan, Afghanistan, western Literary and Cultural Contributions During This Period
Central Asia)
●​ Sanskrit Literature:
●​ Karakoram Highway:
○​ Sariputraprakarana: Ashvaghosha, first Sanskrit play, nine
○​ Role: Buddhist monks’ route to China, commercial route
acts
○​ Imports: Chinese silk, western horses
○​ Buddhacharita: Ashvaghosha, epic poem on Buddha’s life
○​ Inscription: Rock of Hunza, mentions Kadphises I, II,
○​ Saundarananda: Ashvaghosha, poem on Nanda’s
Kanishka
transformation
○​ Conquests: Magadha, Kashmir, Khotan
○​ Junagarh Inscription: Rudradaman I, earliest Kavya style,
pure Sanskrit, 150 AD, Kathiawar
 ●​ Hindu Treatises: ○​ Dynasty: Indo-Greek
○​ Manusmriti: Final shape, law, ethics, social norms ○​ Ruler: Antialcidas
●​ Buddhist Literature: ○​ Events: Heliodorus erected Garuda Pillar, adopted
○​ Avadanas: Mahavastu, Divyavadana, karmic deeds Vaishnavism
○​ Buddhist-Hybrid Sanskrit: Mahayana teachings ●​ 100–20 BC:
●​ Theatre and Drama: ○​ Dynasty: Shakas
○​ Innovations: Indoor/outdoor theatres, Yavanika (curtains), ○​ Rulers: Maues (Moga), Azes
actress rest houses ○​ Events: Moga in Gandhara, Azes destroyed Indo-Greeks
○​ Influence: Yavana (Greeks) ●​ 130–150 AD:
●​ Science and Technology: ○​ Dynasty: Shakas
○​ Astronomy: Greek terms (Horashastra), enriched Indian ○​ Ruler: Rudradaman I
texts ○​ Events: Sanskrit inscription, repaired Sudarshana Lake,
○​ Medicine: Charaka Samhita, herbs, Ayurveda foundation defeated Satavahanas
○​ Astrology: Greek practices merged with Indian traditions ●​ 57 BC:
○​ Glass-making: Advanced foreign techniques ○​ Ruler: Vikramaditya (Ujjain)
○​ Metallurgy: Refined copper, iron tools ○​ Events: Expelled Shakas, started Vikrama Samvat
○​ Textile industry: High-quality cotton, silk, trade boost ●​ 43 AD:
○​ Numismatics: High-quality coins (Greeks, Kushanas) ○​ Dynasty: Parthians
○​ Ruler: Gondophernes
○​ Events: Displaced Shakas, ruled Kabul
Timeline of Central Asian Dynasties and Important Rulers in India
●​ 50–78 AD:
○​ Dynasty: Kushanas
●​ 250 BC:
○​ Rulers: Kadphises I, II
○​ Dynasty: Seleucid Empire
○​ Events: Expanded to Gandhara, Mathura, issued gold coins
○​ Ruler: Antiochus III
●​ 78–120 AD:
○​ Events: Defeated Subhagasena, weakened Seleucid
○​ Dynasty: Kushanas
Empire
○​ Ruler: Kanishka
●​ 180 BC:
○​ Events: Shaka Era, expanded empire, patronized
○​ Dynasty: Indo-Greek
Mahayana Buddhism
○​ Ruler: Demetrius II
●​ 3rd Century AD:
○​ Events: Extended Bactrian rule, issued bilingual coins
○​ Dynasty: Sassanians
●​ 165–130 BC:
○​ Events: Overthrew Kushanas in Afghanistan, west of Indus
○​ Dynasty: Indo-Greek
○​ Ruler: Menander (Milinda)
○​ Events: Ruled vast territories, embraced Buddhism, Milinda
Satavahanas
Panho
●​ 130–120 BC:
Introduction ○​ Relation: Brother of Vashishtiputra Satakarni
○​ Conquests: Recovered north Konkan, Malwa from Shakas
●​ Rise: 1st century BC, Deccan region ○​ Coins: Ship motif, indicated overseas trade
●​ Successors: Native successors of Mauryans in Deccan, Central ●​ King Hala:
India ○​ Work: Wrote Gatha Sattasai (Prakrit), 700 love poems,
●​ Identity: Believed identical to Andhras (Puranas) similar to Sangam poetry
●​ Title: Andhrabhrityah (likely Andhra tribe)
●​ Regions: Andhra, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh
Material Culture of Satavahana

Important Rulers Metallurgy

The Satavahanas ●​ Tools: Iron, extracted from Karimnagar, Warangal (Telangana)

●​ Bullion: Gold (no gold coins)
●​ Initial rule: Telangana, then Maharashtra (Godavari basin) ●​ Coins: Lead, Potin, Copper, Bronze
●​ Capital: Prathistan (Paithan, Maharashtra) ●​ Potin: Base metal alloy (copper, tin, lead, no precious metals)
●​ Expansion: Coastal Andhra ●​ Gold workings: Kolar fields
●​ Earliest inscriptions: 1st century BC
●​ Conquests: Defeated Kanvas, established power in central India Agriculture and Economy
(north Maharashtra, upper Godavari valley)
●​ Crops: Paddy transplantation, cotton (Krishna-Godavari region)
Rulers ●​ Trade: Roman, Satavahana coins found
●​ Donors: Merchants, artisans, Gandhikas (perfumers, later
●​ Simuka: shopkeepers)
○​ Role: Founder of Satavahana dynasty ●​ Donations: To Buddhist cause, memorial tablets
●​ Gautamiputra Satakarni (106–130 AD): ●​ Towns: Developed in Maharashtra (1st century BC), eastern Deccan
○​ Conquests: Defeated Shaka ruler Nahapana, reissued ●​ Andhra towns: 30 walled towns, numerous villages (Pliny)
Nahapana’s coins
○​ Inscription: Nashik (Gautami Balashri, mother), conqueror
of Shakas, Pahlavas, Yavanas Social Organisation
○​ Rituals: Performed Vedic Asvamedha sacrifice
●​ Origin: Deccan tribe
○​ Titles: Raja-Raja (King of Kings), Maharaja (Great King),
●​ Brahmanization: Gautamiputra Satakarni claimed Brahmana
Lord of Vindhya
status, re-established fourfold varna system
●​ Vasishthiputra Pulumavi (130–154 AD):
●​ Matrilineal aspects:
○​ Relation: Son of Gautamiputra Satakarni
○​ Names: Derived from mothers (Gautamiputra,
○​ Capital: Paithan (Godavari)
Vashishtiputra)
●​ Yagnashri Satakarni (165–194 AD):
 ○​ Inscriptions: Issued under king and mother’s authority ●​ Rock-cut:
○​ Succession: Patriarchal ○​ Chaityas, monasteries: Karle chaitya (western Deccan)
○​ Viharas: Nasik, inscriptions of Nahapana, Gautamiputra
(1st–2nd century AD)
Administration
●​ Stupas:
○​ Amaravati: Started 200 BC, reconstructed late 2nd century
●​ Basis: Dharmashastras
AD
●​ King: Upholder of dharma, divine attributes
○​ Nagarjunakonda: 2nd–3rd century, Buddhist monuments,
●​ Structures:
early Brahmanical temples (Ikshvakus)
○​ Retained: Ashokan officials (Amatyas, Mahamatras)
○​ Sanchi: Embellished by Satavahanas, repaired under
○​ High officials: Maharashtrikas
Satakarni II
○​ Divisions: Rashtra (new), Ahara (districts)
●​ Feudatories:
○​ Grades: Raja (coin-striking right), Mahabhoja, Senapati Language
○​ Senapati: Provincial governor, controlled tribal areas
●​ Rural administration: Gaulmika (military regiment head) ●​ Official: Prakrit
●​ Military centres: Kataka, Skandhavara (camps, settlements) ●​ Script: Brahmi
●​ Army: Infantry, cavalry, elephants (Pliny) ●​ Inscriptions: All in Prakrit
●​ Land grants:
○​ Recipients: Brahmanas, Buddhist monks
Important Scholars During the Satavahana Period
○​ Features: Tax-free, Naneghat inscriptions (exemptions to
monks)
●​ Hala:
○​ Impact: Non-cultivating landowners, land-based hierarchy,
○​ Field: Literature
varna system enforcement
○​ Work: Gatha Saptashati, 700 Prakrit poems (love, nature,
rural life)
Religion ●​ Sarvasena:
○​ Field: Literature (Prakrit, Sanskrit)
●​ Vedic rituals: Ashvamedha, Vajapeya ○​ Work: Hari Vijaya (Sanskrit)
●​ Gods: Vaishnava (Krishna, Vasudeva) ○​ Role: Patron of Prakrit
●​ Buddhism: Mahayana, popular among artisans ●​ Gunadhya:
●​ Buddhist centres: Nagarjunakonda, Amaravati (Andhra), Nasik, ○​ Field: Literature
Junar (Maharashtra) ○​ Work: Brihatkatha (Paisachi), source for Kathasaritsagara
●​ Support: Traders ●​ Naganika:
○​ Field: Religion, Inscriptions
○​ Role: Satavahana queen, Naneghat inscription
Architecture
(administrative, social practices)
 ●​ Gautamiputra Satakarni: Gupta Empire
○​ Field: Patronage
○​ Role: Supported Vedic, Buddhist studies
Introduction

Important Satavahana Inscriptions ●​ Rise: Mid-3rd century AD

●​ Predecessors: Satavahanas, Kushans, Murundas
●​ Kanaganahalli (Sannati, Karnataka): ●​ Origin: Possibly Kushan feudatories, Uttar Pradesh
○​ Inscription: Adhalaka Mahachaitya ●​ Centre: Prayaga
○​ Details: Mentions Vasisthaputra Sri-Chimuka ●​ Murundas: Kushan kinsmen, ruled central India (230–250 AD)
●​ Nashik (Pandavleni): ●​ Caste: Likely Vaisya
○​ Inscription: Gautami Balashri ●​ Extent: Smaller than Mauryan Empire, united North India for over a
○​ Details: Praises Gautamiputra Satakarni, destroyer of century
Saka, Yavana; mentions victory over Nahapana ●​ Regions: Anuganga, Prayag, Saketa (Ayodhya), Magadh, West,
●​ Naneghat: Northwest, East coast to Pallava Kingdom
○​ Inscription: Naneghat Cave ●​ Government: Strong central, many kingdoms under hegemony
○​ Details: Eulogy of Queen Naganika (Satakarni I’s wife),
mentions Rajasuya, Ashvamedha Reasons for the Rise of the Gupta Empire
●​ Sanchi Stupa:
○​ Inscription: Donative ●​ Land: Fertile Madhyadesha (Bihar, Uttar Pradesh)
○​ Details: Mentions Satakarni II at gateway ●​ Resources: Iron ores from south Bihar, Central India
●​ Girnar: ●​ Trade: Proximity to North India silk trade with Byzantine Empire
○​ Inscription: Rudradaman I’s Junagadh Rock
○​ Details: Mentions defeat of Vasisthaputra Pulumavi by
Important Rulers of the Gupta Empire
Rudradaman I
●​ Hathi Gumpha:
●​ Dynasty: Gupta
○​ Inscription: Kharavela’s
●​ Founder: Sri Gupta (240–280 AD)
○​ Details: Mentions Kharavela’s exploits, possible
○​ Title: Maharaja
confrontation with Satavahanas, Satakarni I
●​ Ghatotkacha (280–319 AD):
○​ Title: Maharaja
Decline of the Empire ●​ Chandragupta I (319–335 AD):
○​ Era: Started Gupta era (319–320 AD)
●​ Period: 3rd century AD ○​ Title: Maharajadhiraja
●​ Successors: Ikshvakus, Pallavas (Andhra), Kadambas (northern ○​ Marriage: Kumaradevi (Licchavi Kshatriya princess, Nepal)
TRY] ○​ Region: Licchavi (Gana-sangha, Ganges-Nepal Terai)
●​ Karnataka) ○​ Evidence: No inscriptions or coins
●​ Samudragupta (335–375 AD): ○​Titles: Vikramaditya, Vikrama, Devagupta, Devaraja,
○​ Relation: Son of Chandragupta I Simhavikrama
○​ Policy: Conquest ○​ Capital: Ujjain (second capital)
○​ Inscription: Allahabad pillar (by Harisena, Sanskrit) ○​ Coins: First Gupta ruler to issue silver coins
○​ Conquests: ○​ Visitor: Fa Hien (Chinese traveller)
■​ Ganga-Yamuna doab ○​ Scholars: Nine Luminaries (Navaratnas)
■​ Himalayan, frontier states: Assam, Nepal, Bengal, ●​ Kumaragupta I (415–455 AD):
Punjab ○​ Alias: Sakraditya
■​ Atavika Rajya: Vindhyan forest kingdoms ○​ Relation: Son of Chandragupta II
■​ Dakshinapatha: 12 rulers of eastern Deccan, South ○​ Reign: Peace, prosperity
India (up to Kanchi, Pallavas) ○​ Rituals: Asvamedha sacrifice
■​ Sakas, Kushans: Afghanistan ○​ Coins: Issued numerous
■​ Nine Republics: Malavas, Yaudheyas (Rajasthan) ○​ Foundation: Nalanda University
○​ Diplomacy: Meghavarman (Sri Lanka) sought permission ○​ Threat: Huns attempted invasion via Hindukush
for Buddhist temple at Gaya ●​ Skandagupta (455–467 AD):
○​ Nickname: Napoleon of India (V.A. Smith) ○​ Relation: Son of Kumaragupta
○​ Rituals: Asvamedha sacrifice ○​ Role: Last great Gupta king
○​ Coins: Gold, silver, legend ‘restorer of the Asvamedha’ ○​ Conquests: Repulsed Huns
○​ Religion: Vaishnavism, tolerant, patron of Buddhist scholar ○​ Inscriptions: Bhitari pillar, Junagarh (appointed governors,
Vasubandhu e.g., Parnadatta for Saurashtra)
○​ Arts: Poetry, music, titled Kaviraja ○​ Challenge: Huns strained empire’s resources
●​ Chandragupta II (375–415 AD):
○​ Relation: Son of Samudragupta Nine Luminaries or ‘Navaratnas’
○​ Succession: After struggle with brother Ramagupta
○​ Peak: Territorial expansion ●​ Dhanvantari: Physician
○​ Alliances: ●​ Kalidasa: Abhijnana Shakuntalam, Vikramorvashiyam
■​ Married: Kuberanaga (Naga princess, Central ●​ Vararuchi/Katyana: Vyakarana
India) ●​ Sanku: Silpasastra (Architecture)
■​ Daughter: Prabhavati married Vakataka prince ●​ Vittal Bhat: Mantra Shastra (Music)
Rudrasena II ●​ Varahamihira: Panchasiddhantika
○​ Conquests: ●​ Amarasimha: Amarakosha (Sanskrit lexicography)
■​ Sakas: Defeated last Saka satrap, titled Sakari ●​ Kshapanaka: Jyotishya Shastra (Astrology)
■​ Regions: Western Malwa, Kathiawar peninsula ●​ Harisena: Allahabad pillar inscription
■​ Northern rulers: Huns, Kambojas, Kiratas
○​ Trade: Access to ports (Broach, Sopara, Cambay) Fa Hien’s Visit (399–414 AD)
○​ Inscription: Mehrauli Iron Pillar
 ●​ Identity: Chinese pilgrim ●​ Payment: Kumaramatyas paid in cash
●​ Route: Land (Khotan, Kashgar, Gandhara, Punjab), sea (Ceylon,
Java) Officers in the Gupta Empire
●​ Places: Peshawar, Mathura, Kanauj, Sravasti, Kapilavastu,
Kusinagara, Pataliputra, Kasi, Bodh Gaya ●​ Mantriparishad: Council of ministers
●​ Observations: ●​ Akshapataladhikrita: Keeper of royal records
○​ Mathura: Numerous, happy people ●​ Amatyas/Sachivas: Executive officers, various departments
○​ Pataliputra: Rich, prosperous ●​ Saulkika: Collector of customs, tolls
●​ Purpose: Study Buddhism, collect manuscripts ●​ Sandhivigrahaka: Minister for foreign affairs, war, peace
●​ Focus: Religion, not politics ●​ Uparikas: Provincial governor
●​ Information: Religious, social, economic conditions ●​ Mahabaladhikrita, Mahadandanayaka: Superior army posts
●​ Mahapratiara: Chief of palace guards
Administration ●​ Mahashvapati: Commander of cavalry
●​ Khadyatapakita: Superintendent of royal kitchen
●​ Titles: Paramabhattaraka, Maharajadhiraja, Parameswara, Samrat, ●​ Dandapashika: Chief officer of police
Chakravartin ●​ Dutakas: Spies
●​ Divine status: Samudragupta compared to Purusha (Allahabad ●​ Pilupati: Head of elephants
inscription) ●​ Asvapati: Head of horses
●​ Government: Strong central, hegemonic ●​ Narapati: Head of foot soldiers
●​ Feudalism: Took root ●​ Lokpala: Provincial governor
●​ King:
○​ Symbol: Vishnu (protector, preserver) Army
○​ Epithets: Parama-Daivata, Parama-Bhagavata,
Parameshvara ●​ Type: Standing army, supplemented by feudatories
○​ Succession: Hereditary, no firm primogeniture ●​ Innovations: Saddle, reins, buttoned coats, trousers, boots (from
●​ Ministers and Officials: Kushans)
○​ Council: Chief minister, Senapati, others ●​ Focus: Cavalry, horse archery
○​ Officials: Kumaramatyas, Ayuktas (provincial links) ●​ Designations: Baladhikrita, Mahabaladhikrita
●​ Kumaramatyas: ●​ Absence: Senapati in Gupta inscriptions (found in Vakataka
○​ Mentions: Six Vaishali seals epigraphs)
○​ Role: High-ranking Amatyas, equivalent to princes ●​ Office: Ranabhandagar-Adhikarana (military storehouse, Vaishali
○​ Attachments: King, crown prince, revenue, provinces seal)
○​ Example: Harisena (Kumaramatya, Sandhivigrahaka,
Mahadandanayaka) Division of the Empire
●​ Recruitment: Not limited to upper varnas
●​ Posts: Mostly hereditary
 ●​ Structure: Bhuktis (provinces) → Vishayas (districts) → Vithi (cities) ○​ Growth: Irrigation expansion
→ Villages (Gram) ○​ Protection: Fenced crops, punishment for damage
○​ Crops: Rice, wheat, barley, peas, lentils, pulses, sugarcane,
Provinces oil seeds
○​ Southern India: Pepper, cardamom (Kalidasa)
●​ Name: Deshas, Bhuktis ○​ Fruit trees: Plantation instructions (Varahamihira)
●​ Governors: Uparikas (appointed by king) ●​ Land records:
●​ Role: Controlled military, appointed district heads ○​ Ownership: King as sole proprietor
●​ Evidence: Damodarpur plates (Uparika as maharaja), Eran pillar ○​ Officer: Ustapala (district land transactions)
(Budhagupta, 165 AD, Surashmichandra as Lokpal) ○​ Village accountant: Land records
●​ Irrigation:
Vishayas ○​ Dykes: Bardhya (flood protection), Khara (irrigation)
○​ Drains: Jalanirgamah (prevent inundation)
●​ Head: Vishyapatis (appointed by governor or king) ○​ Canals: From rivers, tanks, lakes
●​ Support: Prominent town members ○​ Lake: Sudarsana (Girnar Hills, Gujarat)
●​ Guilds: Managed own affairs, punished violations ●​ Land classification:
●​ Sub-units: Vithi, bhumi, pathaka, peta ○​ Kshetra: Cultivable
●​ Officials: Ayuktakas, Vithi-Mahattaras ○​ Khila: Waste
●​ Village: ○​ Aprahata: Jungle, wasteland
○​ Functionaries: Gramika, Gramadhyaksha (chosen by ○​ Vasti: Habitable
villagers) ○​ Gapata Saraha: Pastoral
○​ Board: Ashtabula-Adhikarana (Damodarpur plate, led by
Mahattara) Land Grant System
○​ Corporate body: Panchmandali (Sanchi inscription,
Chandragupta II) ●​ Origin: Started by Satavahanas, regular in Gupta period
●​ Recipients: Priests, administrators
Feudatory System of Gupta ●​ Features: Tax-free, perpetual, priests collected taxes
●​ Impact: Priestly landlords, peasant serfdom, new cultivation areas
●​ Chiefs: Samantas (vassals) ●​ Types:
●​ Seal: Royal Garuda ○​ Agrahara: Brahmins, perpetual, hereditary, tax-free
●​ Obligations: Attendance, tribute, daughters for marriage ○​ Devagraha: Brahmins, merchants for temple repair,
worship
Economy ○​ Secular: Feudatories
●​ Tenure:
●​ Text: Nitisara (Kamandaka), emphasized royal treasury ○​ Nivi dharma: Trusteeship (North, Central India, Bengal)
●​ Agriculture: ○​ Nivi dharma aksayana: Perpetual endowment, income use
 ○​ Aprada dharma: Income use, no gifting or administrative ●​ Other ports:
rights ○​ East: Kadura, Ghantasala (Andhra)
○​ Bhumichchi-dranyaya: Ownership for making barren land ○​ West: Broach, Cambay (Gujarat), Calliena (Kalyan), Chaul
cultivable, rent-free (Maharashtra)
●​ Measurements: Kulyavapa, Dronavapa ●​ Exports: Cotton (Bengal), indigo (Bihar), silk (Banares), Himalayan
scents, sandal, spices, pearls, precious stones, coconuts, ivory
Taxation ●​ Imports: Gold, silver, tin, lead, silk, horses
●​ Roman trade: Gold for Indian products, silk trade declined (550 AD)
●​ Land taxes: Baga, Bhoga (1/4 to 1/6 of produce)
●​ Trade taxes: Decreased Mining and Metallurgy
●​ Forced labour: Vishti (central, western India), Iranyavesti (Madhya
Pradesh, Kathiawar) ●​ Deposits: Iron (Bihar), copper (Rajasthan)
●​ Types: ●​ Mentions: Amarasimha, Varahamihira, Kalidasa
○​ Bhaga: 1/6 produce ●​ Metals: Gold, copper, tin, lead, brass, bronze, bell-metal, mica,
○​ Bhoga: Fruits, firewood, flowers manganese, antimony, red chalk, red arsenic
○​ Kara: Periodic tax ●​ Artifact: Mehrauli Iron Pillar (Chandragupta II, 4th century AD,
○​ Bali: Voluntary, later compulsory, oppressive rust-free)
○​ Udianga: Police or water tax
○​ Uparikara: Extra tax Coinage
○​ Hiranya: Gold or crop share in kind
○​ Vata-Bhuta: Cess for wind, spirit rites ●​ Types: Gold (numerous), silver, copper (fewer)
○​ Halivakara: Plough tax ●​ Decline: Gold coin circulation post-Gupta
○​ Sulka: Customs, tolls ●​ Features: Legends, symbols, titles, sacrifices
○​ Klipta, Upaklipta: Land sale, purchase ●​ Goddess: Lakshmi (Vishnu’s wife)
●​ Design: Greek, Kushan influence
Trade ●​ Earliest: Kumaradevi, Chandragupta I
●​ Samudragupta: 8 gold coin types, depicted with veena
●​ Types: Internal (roads, rivers), external ●​ Chandragupta II: Gold, silver, copper
●​ Safety: Roads safe, no thieves ●​ Post-5th century: Reduced gold content
●​ Guilds: Managed economic, political roles
●​ Traders:
Society
○​ Sresti: Settled
○​ Sarthavaha: Caravan
●​ Brahmana: Supreme, wealthy via land grants
●​ Usury: Practised
●​ Castes: Rigid, sub-castes due to foreigner assimilation, tribal
●​ Port: Tamralipti (Bengal, trade with China, Sri Lanka, Java,
absorption
Sumatra)
 ●​ Foreigners: Huns as Rajput clan ●​ King: Upheld law with Brahmana priests
●​ Women: ●​ Guilds: Own laws
○​ Status: Miserable ●​ Punishments: Fines common, less severe for higher varnas
○​ Rights: Listened to Epics, Puranas
○​ Marriage: No Swayamvara, early marriage (Manusmriti)
Art and Architecture
○​ Sati: Socially accepted (Eran inscription, 510 AD)
○​ Gotra: Changed post-5th century
●​ Era: Golden Age
●​ Sudras: Became agriculturists
●​ Inspiration: Religious
●​ Vaishyas-Sudras: Blurred distinction
●​ Sculptures:
●​ Untouchability: Emerged, Chandalas segregated
○​ Bronze: Buddha (Sultanganj)
○​ Stone: Buddha (Mathura, Sarnath), Varaha (Udayagiri)
Religion ○​ Copper: Buddha (Nalanda, Sultanganj)
●​ Paintings:
●​ Brahmanism: Prominent ○​ Ajanta: Life-like, brilliant colours, Buddha’s life
●​ Gods: Shiva, Vishnu, Krishna ○​ Bagh caves: Madhya Pradesh
●​ Literature: ○​ Sigiriya: Sri Lanka, Ajanta influence
○​ Puranas: Composed, Vishnu-centric ●​ Stupas: Samat (Uttar Pradesh), Ratnagiri (Orissa), Mirpur Khas
○​ Vishnupurana, Vishnusmriti (Sind)
○​ Bhagwadgita: 4th century AD, Krishna devotion, varna ●​ Temple architecture:
duties ○​ Styles: Nagara, Dravidian
●​ Observation: Gangetic Valley as island of Brahmanism (Fa Hien) ○​ Features: Vishnu, Shiva images, central large god
●​ Practices: Idol worship, agricultural festivals ○​ Brick temples: Bhitargaon (Kanpur), Bhaitari (Ghazipur),
●​ Buddhism: Flourished in northwest, neglected in Gangetic Valley Nachnakutara (Panna), Deogarh (Jhansi)
●​ Buddhist art: No royal patronage ○​ Sculptures: Garhwas (Allahabad)
●​ Jainism: Flourished in west, south ●​ University: Nalanda (brick structure)
●​ Jain council: Valabhi, compiled Svetambara canon ●​ Terracotta: Religious, secular figurines
●​ Tolerance: No persecution of Buddhists, Jains ●​ Pottery: Red ware, found at Ahchichhatra, Rajgarh, Hastinapur,
Bashar
Judicial System
Prayaga Prashasthi (Allahabad Pillar Inscription)
●​ Development: Civil, criminal law demarcated
●​ Criminal: Theft, adultery ●​ Location: Asokan pillar
●​ Civil: Property disputes ●​ Composer: Harisena
●​ Laws: Inheritance, varna-based ●​ Script: Nagari, Sanskrit
●​ Courts: Karana, Adhikarana, Aharmasana
 ●​ Details: Samudragupta’s personality, accession, campaigns, ●​ Puranas: 18, key ones: Bhagavatha, Vishnu, Vayu, Matsya
relations, poetry, scholarship ●​ Epics: Mahabharata, Ramayana (current form)
●​ Comparison: Samudragupta to Purusha ●​ Buddhist: Pali (early), Sanskrit (later)
○​ Writers: Arya Deva, Arya Asanga, Vasubandhu, Dignaga
○​ Logic: Vasubandhu’s first regular Buddhist work
Literature
●​ Jain:
○​ Early: Prakrit
●​ Language: Sanskrit (official)
○​ Later: Sanskrit
●​ Records: Sanskrit epigraphs
○​ Vimala: Jain Ramayana
●​ Smriti: Last phase
○​ Siddasena Divakara: Jain logic
●​ Authors:
●​ Scripts: Nagari (from Brahmi)
○​ Sudraka: Mrichchhakatika
●​ Prakrit forms: Suraseni (Mathura), Ardh Magadhi (Awadh,
○​ Bharavi: Kiratarjuniya (Arjuna-Shiva conflict)
Bundelkhand), Magadhi (Bihar)
○​ Subhandu: Vasavadatta
●​ Plays: Comedies, language by class (Prakrit for women, Sudras;
○​ Bhasa: 13 plays (Pratijna Augandharayana,
Sanskrit for others)
Svapnavasavadatta, Charudatta, Pancaratra, Madhyama
●​ Other sources:
Vyayoga, Pratima-nataka, Duta Vakyam, Duta
○​ Smritis: Narada, Vishnu, Brihaspati, Katyayana
Ghatotkacha, Karnabharam, Urubhanga, Avimaraka,
○​ Nitisara: Kamandaka, polity (400 AD)
Balacarita, Abhiseka)
○​ Kalidasa:
■​ Drama: Abhijnana Shakuntalam, Sciences During Gupta
Malavikagnimitram, Vikramorvashiya
■​ Epics: Raghuvamsa, Kumarasambhava ●​ Innovations: Zero, decimal system
■​ Lyrics: Ritusamhara, Meghaduta ●​ Aryabhatta:
○​ Vishakadatta: ○​ Aryabhatiyam: Arithmetic, geometry, algebra, decimal
■​ Devichandraguptam: Ramagupta, Dhruvadevi, system
Chandragupta ○​ Surya Siddhanta: Solar eclipse causes, earth spherical,
■​ Mudrarakshasa: Chandragupta Maurya’s rise rotates on axis
○​ Palakapya: Hastayurveda ●​ Varahamihira:
○​ Vagbhata: Astanga Samgraha ○​ Panchasiddhantika: Five astronomical systems
○​ Brahmagupta: Brahmasphutasiddhanta, ○​ Brihadsamhita: Astronomy, geography, botany, natural
Khandakhadyaka history
○​ Amarasimha: Amarakosha ○​ Brihat Jataka: Astrology
○​ Vishnu Sharma: Panchatantra ●​ Susruta: Sushruta Samhita, surgery
○​ Chandrogomia: Chandravyakaranam
○​ Patanjali: Mahabhashya, commentary on Panini’s
Nalanda University
Ashtadhyayi
 ●​ Founder: Kumaragupta ●​ Period: Post-Gupta decline
●​ Type: Mahavihara, Buddhist monastery ●​ Fragmentation: North India into various kingdoms
●​ Status: UNESCO World Heritage ●​ Kingdoms:
●​ Period: 5th–12th century AD ○​ Maithriyas: Gujarat, capital Valabhi
●​ Patrons: Guptas, Harsha (Kannauj) ○​ Maukharis: Agra, Oudh
●​ Scholars: Tibet, China, Korea, Central Asia ○​ Vakatakas: Western Deccan
●​ Contact: Shailendra dynasty (Indonesia, built monastery) ●​ Pushyabhutis:
●​ Destruction: Mamluk army (Bakhtiyar Khalji), 1200 AD ○​ Region: Thaneswar (north of Delhi, between Sutlej and
Yamuna)
○​ Role: Military under Guptas
Fall of the Empire
○​ Dynasty: Vardhan
●​ Prabhakara Vardhana (580–605 AD):
●​ Threat: Hun invasions
○​ Conquests: Gurjaras, Huns
●​ Response: Skandagupta repulsed Huns
○​ Expansion: Malwa, Gujarat
●​ Successors: Purugupta, Narasimhagupta, Buddhagupta, Baladitya
○​ Alliance: Daughter Rajyasri married Grahavarman
(weak)
(Maukhari king, Kanauj)
●​ Huns: Occupied eastern Malwa, central India (485 AD)
●​ Rajavardhana (605–606 AD):
●​ Yashodharman (Malwa):
○​ Succession: Son of Prabhakara Vardhana
○​ Conquests: Defeated Huns, challenged Guptas
○​ Death: Murdered by Sasanka (Gauda ruler, Bengal)
○​ Inscriptions: Mandasor stone pillars (532 AD)
●​ Harshavardhana (606–647 AD):
●​ Feudatories: Bengal, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh
○​ Succession: Younger brother of Rajavardhana
●​ Economic issues: Loss of western India, land grants reduced
○​ Title: Last great Hindu ruler of Northern India
revenue
●​ Last ruler: Vishnugupta (540–550 AD)
●​ Later Guptas: Magadh, Bihar Epigraphical Sources
●​ Maukharis: Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, capital Kanauj
●​ End: Imperial glory ended mid-5th century, lingered to mid-6th ●​ Madhuban copper plate inscription
century ●​ Sonpat inscription on copper seal
●​ Banskhera copper plate inscription
●​ Nalanda inscription on clay seals

Harshavardhana (606–647 AD)

●​ Capital: Kanauj (transferred from Thaneswar)

●​ Titles: Rajputra, Siladitya
Introduction
●​ Unification: Thaneswar, Kanauj
 ●​ Invitation: Kanauj magnates ●​ Dirghadhvajas: Royal Messengers
●​ Religion: Converted to Buddhism (influenced by Rajyasri) ●​ Kuntala: Chief Cavalry Officer
●​ Mahaprathihara: Chief of Palace Guard
Military Conquests ●​ Banu: Keeper of Records
●​ Sarvagata: Secret Service Department
●​ Conquests:
○​ Deva Gupta (Malwa): Killed for coveting Rajyasri Revenue Administration
○​ Gauda Empire: Subjugated after Sasanka’s death
●​ Alliances: ●​ Taxes:
○​ Kamarupa (Assam): Against Sasanka ○​ Bhaga: Land tax, 1/6 produce
○​ Valabhi: Marriage of Dhruvabhatta to Harsha’s daughter ○​ Hiranya: Cash tax (farmers, merchants)
●​ Defeat: Chalukya king Pulakesin II (Deccan) ○​ Bali: Not well-documented
○​ Inscription: Aihole (by Ravikirti) ●​ Duties: Paid at ferries, barrier stations
○​ Pulakesin’s title: Parameswara ●​ Land grants: Started for officials
○​ Evidence: Badami inscriptions ●​ Crown revenue:
●​ Extent: ○​ Part I: State affairs
○​ Claimed: Assam, Bengal, Bihar, Kanauj, Malwa, Odisha, ○​ Part II: Ministers, officers
Punjab, Kashmir, Nepal, Sindh ○​ Part III: Men of letters
○​ Actual: Ganges-Yamuna territory ○​ Part IV: Religious institutions

Harsha’s Relations with China Judicial Administration

●​ Relations: Friendly with T’ang emperor Tai Tsung ●​ Laws: Stricter than Gupta era
●​ Embassies: 643 AD, 647 AD ●​ Punishments: Banishment, limb cutting, trial by ordeal, life
imprisonment
●​ Violations: Against laws, plotting against king
Administration
●​ Judges: Mimamsakas
●​ Observations (Hiuen Tsang):
●​ Model: Gupta lines, more feudal, decentralized
○​ Law enforcement: Strong
●​ Council: Mantri Parishad
○​ Penalties: Corporal punishment (limited due to Buddhism)
○​ Maiming: For social morality offenses, law defiance
Key Officials

Administrative Divisions
●​ Avanti: Minister for Foreign Relations, War
●​ Skandagupta: Chief Commandant of Elephant Force
●​ Structure: Provinces → Bhuktis → Vishayas → Pathakas
●​ Simhananda: Commander-in-Chief
●​ Officials: Bhogapathi, Ayuktha, Pratpalaka-purusha
Cities and Towns ●​ Initial: Shiva worshipper
●​ Conversion: Buddhism (Mahayana, via Rajyasri)
●​ Description (Hiuen Tsang): Numerous villages, towns, big cities ●​ Assemblies:
●​ Pataliputra: Declined ○​ Kanauj:
●​ Kanauj: Rose, strategic importance ■​ Attendees: 20 kings, Bhaskaravarman (Kamarupa),
○​ Location: Elevated, fortified, middle of doab Buddhist, Jain, Vedic scholars
●​ Charitable initiatives: ■​ Event: Golden Buddha statue consecrated
○​ Free hospitals ○​ Prayag (Mahamoksha Parishad):
○​ Care for sick, poor ■​ Frequency: Quinquennial
○​ Dharamshala (rest houses) ■​ Gifts: Lavish to Buddhist monks
●​ Influence: Buddhism on Hindu society
Army ●​ Equality: Vedic scholars, Buddhist monks
●​ Restrictions: Animal slaughter, meat consumption
●​ Divisions: Chaturanga (fourfold)
●​ Details: Strength, recruitment, payment Caste System
●​ Roles:
○​ Chatas, Bhatas: Ordinary soldiers ●​ Divisions: Fourfold (Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Shudras, untouchables)
○​ Brihadisvaras: Cavalry officers ●​ Brahmins, Kshatriyas: Simple life
○​ Baladhikritas, Mahabaladhikritas: Infantry officers ●​ Nobles, priests: Luxurious life
●​ Shudras: Agriculturalists
●​ Untouchables: Scavengers, executioners, lived outside villages,
Hieun Tsang (630–643 AD)
announced entry
●​ Excluded: Butchers, fishermen, dancers, sweepers
●​ Identity: Chinese Buddhist monk
●​ System: Rigid, no social conflict
●​ Visits: Northern, southern India sacred places
●​ Conduct: Honest, not deceitful
●​ Account: Si-Yu-Ki (Buddhist Records of the Western World)
●​ Title: Prince of pilgrims
●​ Focus: Buddha-related pilgrim centres Status of Women
●​ Stay: Nalanda University (5 years, studied)
●​ Admiration: Harsha for devotion, Buddhist knowledge ●​ Purdah: Common, not for higher-class women (e.g., Rajyasri)
●​ Items: Buddha relics, images, manuscripts ●​ Sati: Practised (Yasomatidevi, Prabhakara Vardhana’s wife)

Dietary Habits
Society
●​ Diet: Mostly vegetarian
Religious Policy ●​ Rare: Onion, garlic
●​ Common: Sugar, milk, ghee, rice
 ●​ Forbidden: Beef, certain meats ○​ Shift: Power to military camps (Skandhavaras)
●​ Kanauj:
Education ○​ Location: Elevated, fortified
○​ Strategic: Middle of doab, control over east, west
●​ Method: Monasteries, religious focus
●​ Vedas: Oral teaching Decline
●​ Language: Sanskrit (learned)
●​ Figures: Wandering bhikshus, sadhus ●​ Period: Post-Harsha (647 AD)
●​ Outcome: Empire disintegrated into small states
Cultural Progress Under Harsha

●​ Patronage: Literature, culture

●​ Authors:
○​ Bana: Harshacharita (first formal king biography),
Kadambari
○​ Harsha: Priyadarsika, Rathnavali (mentions Holi Festival), The Sangam Age
Nagananda
●​ Education:
Introduction
○​ Gifts: For promotion
○​ Centres: Temples, monasteries (Kanauj, Gaya, Jalandhar,
●​ Period: 3rd century BC–3rd century AD
Manipur)
●​ Region: South India
●​ Name: Sangam, Muchchangam
Nalanda University
●​ Mauryan Times:
○​ Asokan Rock Edict II (270–230 BC)
●​ Status: Peak during Harsha
○​ Kingdoms: Cholas, Pandyas, Keralaputras, Satiyaputra
●​ Scholars: China, Japan, Mongolia, Tibet, Central/Southeast Asia
○​ Status: Independent Tamil kingdoms
●​ Teachers: Dharmapala, Chandrapala, Shilabhadra, Bhadrihari,
Jayasena, Devakara, Matanga
●​ Visitor: I-Tsing (670 AD) Sources to Study Sangam Age
●​ Support: Revenue from 200 villages
Archaeological
Reasons for the Decline of Pataliputra and Rise of Kanauj
●​ Megalithic burials:
○​ Urn burial: Cremated ashes in red pottery urns
●​ Pataliputra:
○​ Cist burial: Stone coffin, underground
○​ Decline: Trade, commerce, coin use, tolls
●​ Ports/Capitals: Arikamedu, Kodumanal, Uraiyur, Alagankulam
 ●​ Buddhist sites: Amaravati, Nagarjunakonda (stupas, chaityas) Sangam Details

Numismatic 1.​ First Sangam:

○​ Place: Madurai
●​ Coins: Pre-Satavahana, Satavahana, Cheras, Cholas, Pandyas, ○​ President: Sage Agastyar
Sangam chieftains ○​ Scholars: Agastya, Murugavel, Mudinagarayar, Murunjiyur
●​ Foreign: Roman copper, silver, gold coins ○​ Works: Agatiyam, Paripadal, Mudukurugu, Kalariyavirai
(none available)
Epigraphic 2.​ Second Sangam:
○​ Place: Kapadapuram
●​ Inscriptions: Asokan, Tamil-Brahmi, Satavahana, Buddhist ○​ President: Agastya
●​ Short inscriptions: Pottery, rings, stones (Tamil Nadu, Berenike, ○​ Scholars: Irundiyar, Tolkappiyar, Karungoli, Pandurangan,
Quseir al Qadhim, Egypt) Tarainamaran, Vellurkappiyanar
○​ Works: Tolkappiyam, Mapuram, Isainunukam, Bhutapuram,
Literary Kali, Kuruku, Vendali
3.​ Third Sangam:
●​ Tamil texts: Sangam, post-Sangam ○​ Place: Madurai
●​ Kautilya’s Arthasastra: Economy, statecraft ○​ President: Nakkiralu
●​ Puranas: Andhras/Satavahana genealogy ○​ Scholars: Thiruvalluvar, Valluvar, Ilango Adigal, Seethalai
●​ Buddhist Chronicles: Mahavamsa Sathanar, Nakkiranar, Kapilar, Paranar, Auvaiyar, Mangudi
●​ Gatha Saptasati: Prakrit, by Satavahana king Hala Marudanar
●​ Tolkappiyam: Tamil text ○​ Works: Pattupattu, Ettutogai, Pathinen Kilkanakku,
●​ Post-Sangam epics: 4th–6th century AD Thirukkural

Foreign Accounts Sangam Texts

●​ Texts: Periplus of Erythrean Sea, Pliny’s Natural History, Ptolemy’s ●​ Corpus: Tholkappiyam, Ettuththokai, Paththuppattu
Geography, Vienna Papyrus, Peutingerian Table ●​ Tholkappiyam:
○​ Author: Tholkappiyar
○​ Content: Tamil grammar, poetry, society, culture
The Three Sangams Over the Years
●​ Ettuththokai (Eight Anthologies):
○​ Natrinai
●​ Muvendar: Cheras, Cholas, Pandyas
○​ Kurunthogai
●​ Region: South of Krishna River
○​ Aingurunuru
●​ Conflicts: Inter-kingdom, with Sri Lanka
○​ Patitruppathu
●​ Pandyas: Patronised Tamil Sangams
○​ Paripadal
 ○​ Kalithogai Sangam Polity
○​ Akananuru
○​ Purananuru ●​ Thinai: Socio-economic classification
●​ Paththuppattu (Ten Long Songs): ●​ Rulers:
○​ Thirumurugatrupatai ○​ Kizhar: Village/small territory heads, later nadu
○​ Porunaratrupatai ○​ Velir: Chiefs of tribal communities
○​ Sirupanatruppatai ○​ Vendar: Kings of fertile territories
○​ Perumpanatruppatai ■​ Titles: Kadungo, Imayavaramban, Vanavaramban,
○​ Mullaipattu Peru Vazhuthi
○​ Maduraikanchi ●​ Kings:
○​ Nedunalvadai ○​ Powers: Absolute
○​ Kurinjipattu ○​ Patronage: Bards, poets (avaiyam)
○​ Pattinappalai ○​ Rituals: Vedic sacrifices
○​ Malaipadukadam ○​ Succession: Hereditary, no strict primogeniture
●​ Poems: ~2400, by Panar (bards), Pulavar (poets) ○​ Advisors:
■​ Aimperunkulu: Ministers (Amaichchar), Priests
Women Poets of the Sangam (Anthanar), Generals, Envoys (Dutas/Thuthar),
Spies (Orrar)
●​ Number: 30 poets, >150 poems ■​ Courts: Orasavai, Vettavai
●​ Prominent: Avvaiyar ■​ Poets
●​ Others: Allur Nanmullaiyaar, Kaakkaipadiniyar, Kavarpendu, ○​ Titles:
Nalveliyaar, Okkur Masaathiyar, Paarimakalir ■​ Chera: Vanavaramban, Vanavan, Villavar
■​ Chola: Senni, Valavan, Killi
Post-Sangam Text ■​ Pandya: Thennavar, Minavar
●​ Velir Chiefs:
●​ Patinen Kilkanakku: ○​ Notable: Athiyaman, Pari, Ay, Evvi, Irungo
○​ 18 minor works ○​ Regions: Resource-rich
○​ Themes: Ethics, moral codes ○​ Roles: Patronised poets, military conflicts
○​ Key works: Thirukkural, Naladiyar ○​ Mention: Satiyaputra (Athiyaman, Asokan inscription)
●​ Epics: ●​ Ritual: Vattakirutal (suicide by starvation after defeat)
○​ Silappadikaram:
■​ Author: Ilango Adigal Sangam Society
■​ Story: Kovalan, Madhavi, Kannagi
○​ Manimekalai: ●​ Inequalities: Sharp
■​ Author: Seethalai Sathanar ●​ Housing:
■​ Story: Daughter of Kovalan-Madhavi ○​ Affluent: Brick, mortar
 ○​ Poor: Huts ●​ Crops: Paddy, ragi, sugarcane, grains, fruits, spices (pepper),
●​ Castes: turmeric
○​ Brahmins: Poets, protected by kings
○​ Kshatriya, Vaisya: Not regular varnas Craft Production
○​ Warriors: Enadi title
○​ Ruling caste: Arasar, married Vellalas ●​ Items: Bronze vessels, beads, goldwork, textiles, shell bangles,
○​ Landowners: Vellalar ornaments, glass, iron, pottery
○​ Ploughmen: Uzhavar ●​ Centres: Arikamedu, Uraiyur, Kanchipuram, Kaviripattinam,
○​ Labourers/Slaves: Kadaisiyar, Adimai Madurai, Korkai, Pattanam
○​ Artisans: Pulaiyans (charpayis) ●​ Market: Maduraikanchi (day/night markets)
●​ Slavery: References exist
Trade
Tamil Eco-Zones
●​ System: Barter, coins
●​ Thinai: ●​ Coins: Roman gold, silver (Coimbatore hoards)
○​ Kurinji: Hilly, hunting, gathering ●​ Long-distance: Roman Empire, Egypt, Arabia, Malay archipelago,
○​ Marutham: Riverine, agriculture (ploughs, irrigation) China
○​ Mullai: Forest, pastoralism, shifting cultivation ●​ Evidence: Roman amphorae, glassware, pottery inscriptions
○​ Neythal: Coastal, fishing, salt production ●​ Foreign artisans: Magadha, Maratha, Malva, Yavana (Manimekalai)
○​ Palai: Arid, cattle lifting, robbery ●​ Terms: Vanikan (trader), Chattan, Nigama
●​ Merchants: Umanar (salt), Chattu (itinerant)
Sangam Economy ●​ Items: Ivory, pearls, precious stones, muslin, silk, cotton cloth

Revenue Army

●​ Sources: ●​ Funding: Taxes from peasantry

○​ Foreign/domestic trade ●​ Units: Chariots (oxen), elephants, cavalry, infantry
○​ Custom/transit duties (Puhar) ●​ Roles:
○​ Spoils of war ○​ Nobles/Princes: Elephants
○​ Agriculture ○​ Commander: Chariots
●​ Taxes: Irai (regular), Tirai (tribute)
●​ Taxation: Highways, Kaviripattinam port
Ideology and Religion

Agriculture
Buddhism
 ●​ Arrival: Asokan period Important King
●​ Spread: South India, Sri Lanka
●​ Legend: Asoka’s daughter took Bodhi tree to Sri Lanka ●​ Karikala (~100 AD):
●​ Presence: Krishna-Godavari delta (Amaravati, Nagarjunakonda) ○​ Alias: Tirumavalan
●​ Tamil Nadu: Limited sites ○​ Capital: Moved to Puhar
○​ Patronage: Poets (cash, gold, land, chariots, horses,
Jainism elephants)
○​ Poem: Pattinappalai (Katiyalur Uruttirankannanar)
●​ Presence: Tamil Nadu (cave shelters, Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions) ○​ Conquests:
●​ Support: Merchants, devotees (rock shelters, offerings) ■​ Venni: Defeated Cheras (Perum Cheralathan),
●​ Literature: Post-Sangam contributions Pandyas, 11 Velir chieftains
■​ Vagaipparandalai: Defeated Nine Princes
Beginning of Brahminism ■​ Pallavas, Kurumbras: Acknowledged suzerainty
○​ Developments: Cleared forests, built irrigation tanks,
●​ Support: Satavahanas, Sangam kings, Ikshvakus (Vedic sacrifices) Killanai dam (Kaveri), reservoirs
●​ Migration: Brahmins ○​ Succession: Dispute between Puhar, Uraiyur branches
●​ Worship: Vishnu, Murugan (Subramaniya)
●​ Practices: The Cheras
○​ Megalithic: Provisions for dead (paddy)
○​ Cremation: Introduced ●​ Region: Central/northern Kerala, Kongu (Tamil Nadu)
○​ Inhumation: Continued ●​ Branches:
●​ Varnasrama: Not established ○​ Vanji
○​ Poraiya: Karur
The Cholas ●​ Ports: Musiri, Tondi
●​ Inscriptions: Pugalur (3 generations)
●​ Region: Central/northern Tamil Nadu, Kaveri Delta ●​ Text: Patitrupathu (8 kings)
(Cholamandalam/Coromandel) ●​ Coins: Copper, lead, Tamil-Brahmi, Roman imitation
●​ Location: Between Pennar, Vellar rivers (Chellirumporai)
●​ Capitals:
○​ Uraiyur: Near Thiruchirapalli, cotton trade Important Kings
○​ Puhar/Kaviripattinam: Port, alternative residence
●​ Navy: Sailed to Ganga, Irrawaddy, Malay archipelago ●​ Udiyan Cheral:
●​ First king: Uruvappahrer Ilam Set Senni ○​ Period: Satavahana king Satakarni II
●​ Decline: Weakened by Cheras, Pandyas, Pallavas (4th–9th century) ●​ Nedum Cheral Adan:
○​ Conquest: Defeated Yavanas
 ○​ Title: Imayavaramban ○​ Conquest: Talayalanganam (Chera, Chola, 5 Velir
○​ Sons: Cheran Senguttuvan, Ilango Adigal chieftains)
○​ Ilango Adigal: Ascetic, authored Silappadikaram ○​ Title: Aryappadaikadanda
●​ Senguttuvan (Red Chera): ○​ Captured: Milalai, Mutthuru
○​ Status: Greatest Chera king
○​ Conquests: Chieftains, protected Musiri
Summary
○​ Expedition: North India (Silappadikaram)
○​ Contemporary: Yagnasri Satakarni
●​ Cheras:
○​ Defeated: Kadambas (pirates)
○​ Region: Kerala
○​ Title: Kadal-Pirakka Hiya
○​ Capital: Vanji
○​ Reign: 46 years
○​ Ruler: Cheran Senguttuvan
○​ Religion: Orthodox, heterodox
○​ Ports: Musiri, Tondi
○​ Diplomacy: Mission to China
○​ Emblem: Bow and Arrow
○​ Cult: Pattini (Kannagi)
●​ Cholas:
○​ Region: Tamil Nadu
The Pandyas ○​ Capital: Uraiyur
○​ Ruler: Karikala
●​ Region: Southern/south-eastern Indian Peninsula ○​ Port: Kaveripattinam/Puhar
●​ Capital: Madurai ○​ Emblem: Tiger
●​ Ports: Korkai (Tampraparani-Bay of Bengal), Nelkynda (Kottayam) ●​ Pandyas:
●​ Mention: Megasthenes (pearls, matriarchal) ○​ Region: Tamil Nadu
●​ Trade: Rome, embassies to Augustus, horse imports ○​ Capital: Madurai
●​ Decline: Kalabhras ○​ Ruler: Nedunchezhiyan
○​ Ports: Nelkynda, Korkai
Important Kings ○​ Emblem: Fish

●​ Vadimbalambaninra (Nediyon): Age of Kalabhras (Post-Sangam Period)

○​ Earliest king
●​ Padagasalai Mudukudumi-Peruvazhuthi: ●​ Period: ~300–600 AD
○​ Roles: Warrior, poetry patron ●​ Literature: Tirukkural, Silappadikaram, Manimekalai
○​ Poem: Maduraikanchi (Mangudi Marudan) ●​ Religion: Jainism, Buddhism influence
○​ Inscription: Velvikkudi copper plates (Brahman land ●​ Perception: Negative by Vedic-Puranic scholars
grants) ●​ End: Overthrown by Pandyas (mid-6th century)
○​ Coins: Peruvazhuthi (Vedic sacrifices) ●​ Status: Transition period, not dark age
●​ Nedunchezhiyan: ●​ Developments: Larger state societies (Pallavas, Pandyas)
Important Ports During This Time ●​ Southern Baluchistan
○​ Nal Culture: Sor Damb
●​ Chera: ○​ Kulli Culture: Mehi, Roji, Mazera Damb
○​ Muziris: Kodungallur, Kerala ●​ Punjab (Pakistan)
○​ Tondi: Near Ponnani, Kerala ○​ Harappa, Saraikhola, Jalilpur
○​ Naravu: Near Kannur, Kerala ●​ Sindh (Pakistan)
●​ Cholas: ○​ Amari, Kot Diji, Mohenjodaro
○​ Nagapattinam: Tamil Nadu ●​ Rajasthan (India)
○​ Poompuhar/Puhar: Tamil Nadu ○​ Sothi, Kalibangan-I
○​ Tharangambadi, Kodikarai: Tamil Nadu ●​ Haryana (India)
○​ Arikamedu: Near Puducherry ○​ Vanawali, Rakhigarhi
○​ Korkai: Tamil Nadu
●​ Pandya: Regional Cultures
○​ Korkai: Tamil Nadu
○​ Saliyur, Marungur: Tamil Nadu ●​ South-Eastern Rajasthan
●​ Kalabhra: ○​ Ahar Culture/Banas Culture: 2,100 BC–1,500 BC
○​ Kaveripattinam: Tamil Nadu ■​ Location: Banas river valley, Udaipur district
○​ Tondi: Kerala ■​ Type Site: Ahar
○​ Vanji: Kerala ■​ Other Sites: Gilund, Balaghat
●​ Western Maharashtra
Introduction ○​ Jorwe Culture: 1,400 BC–750 BC
■​ Location: Prawara river, Ahmednagar district
●​ Ancient history: Prehistoric to early medieval period ■​ Type Site: Jorwe
●​ Covers: Indian subcontinent, Mesopotamia, Egypt, China ■​ Other Sites: Daimabad, Inamgaon, Chandoli,
●​ Sources: Archaeological remains, inscriptions, texts, coins Newasa, Nasik
●​ Key aspects: Rulers, dynasties, culture, religion, architecture ○​ Sawalda Culture: 2,000 BC–1,800 BC
■​ Location: Tapti & Prawara valley, Dhuliya district
Regional Extension of Pre-Harappan Culture ■​ Type Site: Sawalda
●​ Mid Gujarat
●​ Northern Baluchistan ○​ Rangpur Culture: 1,400 BC–750 BC
○​ Jhob Culture: Rana Ghundai, Periano Ghundai, Mughal ■​ Location: Bhadar river, Surendranagar district
Ghundai, Dabarkot ■​ Type Site: Rangpur
○​ Quetta Culture: Kili Ghul Muhammad, Damb Sadat, Pirak ●​ SouthWestern Gujarat
Damb ○​ Prabhashpattan Culture: 1,800 BC–1,500 BC
●​ South-West Afghanistan ■​ Location: Prabhashpattan, Junagarh district
○​ Mundigak, Deh Morasi Ghundai ■​ Type Site: Prabhashpattan
 ●​ Western Madhya Pradesh ●​ Maharashtra
○​ Malwa Culture: 1,700 BC–1,200 BC ○​ Daimabad
■​ Location: Narmada river, Malwa region, Khargon
district Ancient History Dynasty Chronology
■​ Type Site: Navdatoli
■​ Other Sites: Maheshwar, Nagada ●​ Northern India
○​ Kayatha Culture: 2,000 BC–1,800 BC ○​ Mauryan Empire (321–185 BCE)
■​ Location: Kayatha, Kali Sindh river, Ujjain district ■​ Rulers: Chandragupta Maurya, Ashoka, Bindusara,
■​ Type Site: Kayatha Dasharatha Maurya, Brihadratha
■​ Other Sites: Tripuri, Ujjain, Maheshwar, Nagada ■​ Contributions: Unified India, efficient
administration, Buddhism spread, rock edicts
Regional Extension of Harappan Civilization ○​ Indo-Greeks (2nd–1st century BCE)
■​ Rulers: Menander I, Demetrius I
●​ Afghanistan ■​ Contributions: Hellenistic influence, coinage, trade,
○​ Shortughai, Mundigak Buddhism patronage
●​ Baluchistan (Pakistan) ○​ Shakas (Scythians) (1st century BCE–4th century CE)
○​ Mehrgarh, Kili Ghul Muhammad, Rana Ghundai, Dabarkot, ■​ Rulers: Rudradaman I, Nahapana
Balakot, Nindo Bari, Anjira, Sutkagendor ■​ Contributions: Sudarshana Lake, trade links,
●​ Punjab (Pakistan) cultural fusion
○​ Harappa, Jalilpur, Sanghanwala, Ghaneriwal, Saraikhola, ○​ Parthians (1st century BCE–1st century CE)
Derawar ■​ Rulers: Gondophernes, Aspavarman
●​ Sindh (Pakistan) ■​ Contributions: Silk Road exchange, early Christian
○​ Mohenjo-Daro, Amari, Kot Diji, Rehman Dheri, Sukkur, links
Alhadino, Chanhudaro, Ali Murad, Jhukar, Jhangar ○​ Kushan Empire (30–375 CE)
●​ Jammu & Kashmir ■​ Rulers: Kujula Kadphises, Vima Kadphises,
○​ Manda Kanishka, Huvishka, Vasudeva I
●​ Haryana ■​ Contributions: Mahayana Buddhism, Gandhara art,
○​ Vanawali, Rakhigarhi, Bhagawanpura Silk Road trade
●​ Rajasthan ○​ Gupta Empire (319–550 CE)
○​ Kalibangan, Ganeshwar, Shishawal, Bara, Hanumangarh, ■​ Rulers: Chandragupta I, Samudragupta,
Mithal, Chhupas Chandragupta II, Kumaragupta I, Skandagupta
●​ Uttar Pradesh ■​ Contributions: Golden age, science, mathematics,
○​ Alamgirpur, Manpur, Bargaon, Hulas, Sanauli literature
●​ Gujarat ○​ Hunas (Hephthalites) (5th–6th century CE)
○​ Dholavira, Lothal, Surkotda, Rangpur, Desalpur, ■​ Rulers: Toramana, Mihirakula
Prabhaspattan ■​ Contributions: Gupta decline, regionalism
 ○​ Harsha Dynasty (606–647 CE) ■​ Rulers: Mahendravarman I, Narasimhavarman I,
■​ Rulers: Harshavardhana Rajasimha
■​ Contributions: North India unification, Buddhism ■​ Contributions: Mahabalipuram rock-cut temples,
patronage, Nalanda University art, architecture
○​ Maitrakas of Vallabhi (7th–8th century CE) ○​ Chalukyas of Badami (543–757 CE)
■​ Rulers: Dhruvasena II Baladitya, Shiladitya I ■​ Rulers: Pulakesin II, Kirtivarman I, Vikramaditya I
■​ Contributions: Vallabhi learning center ■​ Contributions: Deccan defense, Kannada/Sanskrit
●​ Southern India literature, Badami temples
○​ Cholas (Early) (1st–4th century CE) ●​ Central and Western India
■​ Rulers: Karikala Chola ○​ Shakas - Kshatrapas (1st–4th century CE)
■​ Contributions: Kallanai dam, Chola administration ■​ Rulers: Nahapana, Rudradaman I
foundation ■​ Contributions: Malwa control, Junagarh inscription,
○​ Cheras (3rd century BCE–12th century CE) water management
■​ Rulers: Udayanjeral, Senguttuvan ○​ Parthians (1st century BCE–1st century CE)
■​ Contributions: Tamil culture, maritime trade, ■​ Rulers: Gondophernes
Sangam literature ■​ Contributions: St. Thomas Christian propagation
○​ Pandyas (3rd century BCE–14th century CE) ○​ Satavahana Dynasty (1st century BCE–2nd century CE)
■​ Rulers: Mudigonda, Pandya, Sundara Pandya, ■​ Rulers: Gautamiputra Satakarni, Vasisthiputra
Jatavarman Sundara Pandya Pulumavi
■​ Contributions: Trade with Greeks/Romans, art, ■​ Contributions: Central India control, trade,
literature, architecture Amravati/Sanchi stupas
○​ Satavahanas (1st century BCE–3rd century CE) ○​ Gupta Empire (319–550 CE)
■​ Rulers: Gautamiputra Satakarni, Vashishtiputra ■​ Rulers: Chandragupta I, Samudragupta,
Pulumavi Chandragupta II
■​ Contributions: Prakrit literature, trade, Amaravati ■​ Contributions: Golden age, Udayagiri caves,
art cultural hub
○​ Ikshavakus (3rd–4th century CE) ○​ Vakataka Dynasty (3rd–6th century CE)
■​ Rulers: Vasishtiputra Chamtamula ■​ Rulers: Vindhyasakti, Rudrasena I, Pravarasena I,
■​ Contributions: Buddhist stupas, Nagarjunakonda Harishena
monasteries ■​ Contributions: Gupta allies, Ajanta caves, art
○​ Kadambas of Banavasi (345–525 CE) ○​ Parivrajaka Dynasty (5th–7th century CE)
■​ Rulers: Mayurasharma, Kakusthavarma ■​ Rulers: Hastin
■​ Contributions: Early Kannada kingdom, literature, ■​ Contributions: Shaivism, temple construction
temple architecture ○​ Maitraka Dynasty (5th–8th century CE)
○​ Pallavas (3rd–9th century CE) ■​ Rulers: Dronasimha, Guhasena
 ■​ Contributions: Gujarat control, trade, temple ○​ Major Rock Edict I: Animal sacrifice prohibition, humane
architecture treatment
●​ Eastern India ■​ Locations: Girnar, Dhauli, Sopara
○​ Mauryan Empire (321–185 BCE) ○​ Major Rock Edict II: Welfare, medical care, medicinal herbs
■​ Rulers: Chandragupta Maurya, Ashoka ■​ Locations: Girnar, Kalsi
■​ Contributions: Administration, Ashokan edicts, ○​ Major Rock Edict III: Dhamma promotion, morality
Buddhism ■​ Locations: Girnar, Mansehra
○​ Shunga Empire (185–73 BCE) ○​ Major Rock Edict IV: Moral development, respect for life
■​ Rulers: Pushyamitra Shunga, Agnimitra ■​ Locations: Girnar, Sopara, Dhauli
■​ Contributions: Brahmanical revival ○​ Major Rock Edict V: Social welfare, Dhamma Mahamatras
○​ Kanva Dynasty (73–28 BCE) ■​ Locations: Girnar, Kalsi, Dhauli
■​ Rulers: Vasudeva ○​ Major Rock Edict VI: Open governance, well-being
■​ Contributions: Magadha control ■​ Locations: Girnar, Mansehra
○​ Mahameghavahana Dynasty (1st century BCE) ○​ Major Rock Edict VII: Religious tolerance, unity
■​ Rulers: Kharavela ■​ Locations: Girnar, Dhauli, Sopara
■​ Contributions: Hathigumpha inscription, Kalinga ○​ Major Rock Edict VIII: Pilgrimage, Bodh Gaya
expansion, Jainism ■​ Locations: Girnar, Sopara
○​ Gupta Empire (319–550 CE) ○​ Major Rock Edict IX: Ritual criticism, ethical practices
■​ Rulers: Chandragupta I, Samudragupta, ■​ Locations: Girnar, Kalsi
Chandragupta II ○​ Major Rock Edict X: Materialism rejection, moral living
■​ Contributions: Golden age, Udayagiri caves, ■​ Locations: Girnar, Mansehra
Pataliputra ○​ Major Rock Edict XI: Happiness through Dhamma,
○​ Maukharis (6th century CE) generosity
■​ Rulers: Ishanavarman, Sarvavarman ■​ Locations: Girnar, Dhauli
■​ Contributions: Magadha buffer ○​ Major Rock Edict XII: Religious harmony, tolerance
○​ Gauda Kingdom (7th century CE) ■​ Locations: Girnar, Sopara, Mansehra
■​ Rulers: Shashanka ○​ Major Rock Edict XIII: Kalinga War remorse, Dhamma
■​ Contributions: Bengal independence, Hinduism spread
○​ Harsha Dynasty (7th century CE) ■​ Locations: Dhauli, Jaugada, Girnar
■​ Rulers: Harsha Vardhana ○​ Major Rock Edict XIV: Edicts summary, morality
■​ Contributions: Eastern India consolidation, ■​ Locations: Girnar, Kalsi, Sopara
Nalanda ○​ Minor Rock Edict I: Dhamma advocacy, kindness
■​ Locations: Bairat, Maski
Inscriptions ○​ Minor Rock Edict II: Instructions to officials
■​ Locations: Rupanath, Siddapura
●​ Ashokan Rock Edicts ○​ Minor Rock Edict III: Non-violence, compassion
 ■​ Locations: Brahmagiri, JatingaRameshwar ○​ Mudrarakshasa: Vishakhadatta, politics
●​ Other Inscriptions ○​ Devichandraguptam: Vishakhadatta, court intrigues
○​ Hathigumpha Inscription: Kharavela, Kalinga, Jainism ○​ Harivijaya: Sarvasena, Vakataka epic
○​ Junagarh Inscription: Rudradaman I, water management ○​ Harshacharita: Banabhatta, Harsha biography
○​ Allahabad Pillar Inscription: Samudragupta, Gupta ○​ Kadambari: Banabhatta, prose romance
achievements ○​ Dashakumaracharita: Dandin, prose romance
○​ Aihole Inscription: Pulakesin II, Chalukya victories ○​ Kavyadarsha: Dandin, poetics
○​ Naneghat Inscription: Queen Naganika, Satavahana ○​ Kiratarjuniya: Bharavi, Sanskrit epic
sacrifices ●​ Philosophical Texts
○​ Nyaya Sutras: Gautama, logic
Books ○​ Vaisheshika Sutras: Kanada, atomic theory
○​ Samkhya Karika: Kapila, dualism
●​ Vedic Texts ○​ Yoga Sutras: Patanjali, yoga
○​ Rig Veda: Hymns, early Vedic period ○​ Mimamsa Sutras: Jaimini, rituals
○​ Brahmanas: Rituals, later Vedic period ○​ Brahma Sutras: Badarayana, Vedanta
○​ Upanishads: Philosophy, later Vedic period
○​ Aranyakas: Forest texts, later Vedic period Coinage
●​ Buddhist Texts
○​ Theragatha: Elder monks’ verses ●​ Indo-Greeks: Hellenistic designs, Menander I coins
○​ Therigatha: Elder nuns’ verses ●​ Kushans: Gold coins, Mahayana Buddhist symbols
○​ Mahavibhasa Shastra: Buddhist philosophy ●​ Guptas: Gold dinaras, Chandragupta II, horse motifs
●​ Tamil Literature ●​ Satavahanas: Silver coins, trade symbols
○​ Tholkappiyam: Tamil grammar, Sangam age ●​ Shakas: Silver coins, Rudradaman I inscriptions
○​ Silappatikaram: Tamil epic, Sangam age
●​ Sanskrit Texts Architecture
○​ Ashtadhyayi: Panini, Sanskrit grammar
○​ Mahabhashya: Patanjali, grammar commentary ●​ Harappan: Planned cities, drainage, Mohenjo-Daro, Dholavira
○​ Buddhacharita: Ashvaghosa, Buddha’s life ●​ Mauryan: Ashokan pillars, stupas (Sanchi)
○​ Saundarananda: Ashvaghosa, Buddhist poetry ●​ Gupta: Udayagiri caves, iron pillar
○​ Abhijnanashakuntalam: Kalidasa, drama ●​ Pallava: Mahabalipuram rock-cut temples
○​ Raghuvamsha: Kalidasa, epic ●​ Chalukya: Badami cave temples
○​ Meghaduta: Kalidasa, poetry ●​ Satavahana: Amaravati stupas
○​ Amarakosha: Amarasimha, Sanskrit lexicon ●​ Vakataka: Ajanta caves
○​ Kamasutra: Vatsyayana, human conduct ●​ Caves
○​ Brihat Samhita: Varahamihira, astronomy/astrology ○​ Edakkal Caves: Prehistoric, Wayanad, rock art
○​ Aryabhatiya: Aryabhata, mathematics/astronomy ○​ Barabar Caves: 3rd century BCE, Ajivika, Ashoka
 ○​ Nagarjuni Caves: 3rd century BCE, Ajivika, Dasharatha ○​ Joint families, Gotra system
○​ Bhaja Caves: 2nd century BCE, Buddhist, Satavahanas ●​ Sangam Age: Tamil culture, maritime trade
○​ Karle Caves: 2nd century BCE, Buddhist, Satavahanas ●​ Gupta Period: Golden age, science, mathematics, literature
○​ Pandavleni Caves: 2nd century BCE, Buddhist, ●​ Harsha Period: Buddhism, Nalanda University
Satavahanas
○​ Khandagiri & Udayagiri Caves: 2nd century BCE, Jain, Religion
Kalinga
○​ Pitalkhora Caves: 2nd century BCE, Buddhist, Satavahanas ●​ Vedic Religion
○​ Nagarjunakonda Caves: 2nd century CE, Buddhist, ○​ Early: Henotheism, fire sacrifices
Ikshavakus ○​ Later: Idol worship, Srauta rituals (Rajasuya, Ashvamedha,
○​ Kuda Caves: 2nd century CE, Buddhist Vajapeya)
○​ Kanheri Caves: 1st century BCE–10th century CE, Buddhist ●​ Buddhism
○​ Ajanta Caves: 2nd century BCE–6th century CE, Buddhist ○​ Chaityas: Prayer halls
○​ Udayagiri Caves: 5th century CE, Hindu/Jain, Guptas ○​ Viharas: Monasteries
○​ Bagh Caves: 5th century CE, Buddhist ○​ Pravrajya: Monastic transition ritual
○​ Badami Caves: 6th century CE, Hindu/Jain/Buddhist, ○​ Upasampada: Ordination ceremony
Chalukyas ○​ Uposatha: Full/new moon ceremony
○​ Jogeshwari Caves: 6th century CE, Hindu ○​ Parajika: Four severe offenses
○​ Mandapeshwar Caves: 6th century CE, Hindu ○​ Pavarana: Post-Vassa confession
○​ Aurangabad Caves: 6th–7th century CE, Buddhist ○​ Upasakas/Upasikas: Lay followers
○​ Elephanta Caves: 6th–7th century CE, Hindu ○​ Bodhisattva: Enlightened helpers
○​ Sittanavasal Caves: 7th century CE, Jain ○​ Paramita: Qualities for enlightenment
○​ Ellora Caves: 6th–10th century CE, Hindu/Buddhist/Jain ●​ Jainism
○​ Basadis: Monastic establishments
Culture ○​ Avadhijnana: Superhuman cognition
○​ Ganadharas: Mahavira’s disciples
●​ Early Vedic Period (1500–1000 BCE) ○​ Siddha: Liberated soul
○​ Henotheism, fire worship, Indra, Agni, Varuna ○​ Jiva: Soul
○​ Egalitarian, Varna system beginning ○​ Pudgala: Atomic aggregates
○​ Women: Equal education, poets (Apala, Viswavara, Ghosa, ○​ Chaitanya: Consciousness
Lopamudra) ○​ Mohaniya: Delusion karmas
○​ Kula family system ○​ Gunasthanas: Purification stages
●​ Later Vedic Period (1000–600 BCE) ○​ Arhat: Kevalajnana stage
○​ Idol worship, complex rituals, Varuna, Prajapati, Vishnu ○​ Tirthankara: Teaching Arhat
○​ Clear Varna system: Brahmana, Kshatriya, Vaishya, Shudra ●​ Six Orthodox Philosophies
○​ Women’s status declined ○​ Nyaya: Gautama, logical reasoning
 ○​ Vaisheshika: Kanada, atomic theory ●​ Primary Source
○​ Samkhya: Kapila, dualism ○​ Early: Rig Veda
○​ Yoga: Patanjali, eightfold path ○​ Later: Brahmanas, Upanishads, Aranyakas
○​ Purva Mimamsa: Jaimini, rituals ●​ Geographical Expansion
○​ Uttara Mimamsa: Badarayana, Vedanta ○​ Early: Indus Valley, Sapta Sindhu
●​ Later Philosophies ○​ Later: Ganga-Yamuna Doab, Bengal, Magadha
○​ Advaita: Shankaracharya, non-dualism ○​ Major Centres: Hastinapur, Kausambi, Kurukshetra
○​ Vishishtadvaita: Ramanuja, qualified non-dualism ●​ Political Structure
○​ Dvaita: Madhvacharya, dualism ○​ Early: Tribal chiefs (Rajan), Sabha, Samiti, Vidatha
○​ Dvaita-Dvaita: Nimbakara, soul duality ○​ Later: Hereditary kingship, Janapadas
○​ Shuddhadvaita: Vallabhacharya, Krishna grace ●​ Economy and Economic Developments
○​ Achintya Bheda Abheda: Chaitanya, Krishna Bhakti ○​ Early: Pastoral, barter, cattle wealth
○​ Later: Agriculture, mixed farming, taxation, Nishka
Literature ●​ Key Occupations
○​ Early: Cattle herding, weaving, carpentry
●​ Vedic: Rig Veda, Brahmanas, Upanishads, Aranyakas ○​ Later: Agriculture, chariot-making, metalworking, trade
●​ Tamil: Tholkappiyam, Silappatikaram ●​ Religion and Rituals
●​ Sanskrit: Ashtadhyayi, Mahabhashya, Buddhacharita, Kalidasa’s ○​ Early: Henotheism, fire worship, Indra, Agni, Varuna
works ○​ Later: Idol worship, Brahmanas, Prajapati, Vishnu
●​ Buddhist: Theragatha, Therigatha ○​ Rituals: Yajnas (Early), Srauta rituals (Later)
●​ Philosophical: Nyaya Sutras, Yoga Sutras, Brahma Sutras ●​ Social Structure
○​ Early: Egalitarian, Varna beginning, Dasa slaves
Administration ○​ Later: Clear Varna, caste solidified, Ashrama system
●​ Status of Women
●​ Mauryan: Centralized, Dhamma Mahamatras, Ashokan edicts ○​ Early: Equal education, poets (Apala, Viswavara, Ghosa,
●​ Gupta: Decentralized, provincial governors Lopamudra)
●​ Satavahana: Feudal, trade-focused ○​ Later: Declined, no assembly participation
●​ Harsha: Centralized, Nalanda support ●​ Family Structure
●​ Chola: Kallanai dam, local governance ○​ Early: Kula system
●​ Pallava: Temple-based administration ○​ Later: Joint families, Gotra system
●​ Military Structure and Key Battle
Comparison of Early Vedic Period and Later Vedic Period ○​ Early: No standing army, Battle of Ten Kings
○​ Later: Professional armies, territorial wars
●​ Time Period ●​ Technological Developments
○​ Early: 1500–1000 BCE ○​ Early: Copper, bronze weapons
○​ Later: 1000–600 BCE ○​ Later: Iron tools, weapons
Prominent Women of Ancient India ○​ Tao Chien: 2nd century CE, administration
○​ Marinus of Tyre: 2nd century CE, geography
●​ Sulabha: Mahabharata, philosophical debates ●​ Gupta Empire
●​ Gargi Vachaknavi: Vedic, Brihadaranyaka Upanishad ○​ Faxian: 5th century CE, Record of Buddhist Kingdoms
●​ Lopamudra: Vedic, Rigveda hymns ●​ Harsha Dynasty
●​ Maitreyi: Vedic, Yajnavalkya Upanishad ○​ Xuanzang: 7th century CE, Great Tang Records
●​ Ghosha: Vedic, Rigveda hymns
●​ Apala: Vedic, Rigveda poetess Important Scholars, Poets, and Playwrights
●​ Mudgalini: Vedic, Rigveda hymns
●​ Amrapali: 6th century BCE, Buddhist disciple ●​ Tholkappiyar: Sangam, Tholkappiyam
●​ Sanghamitra: Mauryan, spread Buddhism to Sri Lanka ●​ Ilango Adigal: Sangam, Silappatikaram
●​ Kundalakesa: Post-Mauryan, Jain nun ●​ Panini: Pre-Mauryan, Ashtadhyayi
●​ Queen Naganika: Satavahana, Naneghat inscription ●​ Patanjali: Shunga, Mahabhashya
●​ Prabhavati Gupta: Gupta, Vakataka regent ●​ Vasumitra: Kushana, Buddhist philosophy
●​ Vijya Bhattariga: Chalukya, provincial governor ●​ Ashvaghosa: Kushana, Buddhacharita, Saundarananda
●​ Khema: Buddhist, disciple ●​ Nagarjuna: Kushana, Madhyamaka philosophy
●​ Uppalavanna: Buddhist, arhat ●​ Bhasa: Gupta, 13 plays
●​ Mahaprajapati Gautami: Buddhist, first nun ●​ Harisen: Gupta, Allahabad Pillar Inscription
●​ Chandanbala: Jain, ascetic ●​ Kalidasa: Gupta, Abhijnanashakuntalam, Raghuvamsha
●​ Rohini: Jain, ascetic vows ●​ Amarasimha: Gupta, Amarakosha
●​ Vatsyayana: Gupta, Kamasutra
Foreign Travelers ●​ Varahamihira: Gupta, Brihat Samhita
●​ Aryabhata: Gupta, Aryabhatiya
●​ Mauryan Empire ●​ Vishakhadatta: Gupta, Mudrarakshasa
○​ Megasthenes: 4th century BCE, Indica ●​ Sarvasena: Vakataka, Harivijaya
○​ Deimachus: 3rd century BCE, administration accounts ●​ Banabhatta: Harsha, Harshacharita, Kadambari
●​ Indo-Greek Kingdom ●​ Bhavabhuti: Harsha, Mahaviracharita
○​ Arrian: 4th century BCE, Indica ●​ Ravikirti: Chalukya, Aihole Inscription
○​ Srinavarman: 2nd century BCE, trade/diplomacy ●​ Mahendravarman I: Pallava, Mattavilasaprahasanam
○​ Strabo: 1st century BCE–1st century CE, Geography ●​ Dandin: Pallava, Dashakumaracharita
○​ Plutarch: 1st century BCE, Parallel Lives ●​ Bharavi: Pallava, Kiratarjuniya
●​ Seleucid/Bactrian
○​ Pliny the Elder: 1st century CE, Natural History
●​ Satavahana Empire
○​ Ptolemy: 2nd century CE, Geography
●​ Kushana Empire