DELHI PUBLIC SCHOOL - BOPAL, AHMEDABAD
CLASS X (Study Materialÿ)
CH 1 0: Human eye & the colorful world
❖ HUMAN EYE
The eye is an important and one of the most complex sensory organs that we humans are endowed
with. It helps us in visualizing objects and also helps us in light perception, colour and depth
perception.
It acts like a camera, enable us to capture the colourful picture of the surroundings. An inverted,
real image is formed on the Retina.
The eyeball is approximately spherical in shape with a diameter of about 2.3 cm
The Various Parts of Eye and their Functions
1. Cornea : It is a thin membrane through which light enters. It forms the transparent bulge on the
front of eyeball. Most of the refraction occurs at the outer surface of the cornea.
2. Sclera: It is the outer covering, a protective tough white layer called the sclera (white part of the
eye).
3. Iris : It is a dark muscular diaphragm that controls the size of pupil. It is behind the cornea. It
helps in accomodation of light by changing the size of the pupil.
4. Pupil :It regulates and control the amount of light entering the eye. It is the black opening
between aqueous humour & lens.
5. Crystalline eye lens : Provides the focused real & inverted image of the object on the retina. It
is composed of a fibrous, jelly like material.
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This is convex lens that converges light at retina.
6. Ciliary muscles : It hold the lens. It helps to change the curvature of eye lens and hence
changes its focal length so that we can see the object clearly placed at different positions.
7. Retina : Thin membrane with large no. of light sensitive cells. There are two types of cells in
the human retina, rods and cones.
Rods are responsible for vision at low light levels . They do not mediate color vision. Cones are
active at higher light levels , are capable of color vision.
8. Optic nerves: When image is formed at retina, light sensitive cells gets activated and
generate electrical signal. These signals are sent to brain via optic nerve. Brain analyse these
signals after which we perceive object as they are.
At the junction of the optic nerve and retina, there are no sensory nerve cells. So no vision is possible at that
point and is known as a blind spot.
9. Vitreous humour is the clear gel that fills the space between the lens and the retina of the
eyeball. It gives shape to the eye ball.
10. Aqueous humour is a transparent, watery fluid similar to plasma, but containing low protein
concentrations. The aqueous humor flows in and out of the front of your eye. Its job is to keep
proper ocular pressure (eye pressure) in your eye.
How Pupil Works?
(a) When the light is bright : Iris contracts the pupil, so that less light enters the eye.
(b) When the light is dim : Iris expand the pupil, so that more light enters the eye. Pupil opens
completely, when iris is relaxed.
Persistence of Vision : It is the time for which the sensation of an object continue in the eye. It is
about 1/16th of a second.
Power of Accommodation
The ability of the eye lens to adjust its focal length to see near & far objects is called power
accommodation.
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❖ Defects of Vision and their Correction
1. Myopia : (Near Sightedness)
A person can see nearby object clearly, but cannot see distant object distinctly.
In myopia the image is formed in front of the retina.
Reason of myopia(Near- sightedness)
1. Excessive curvature of eye lens means Eye lens be comes thick and its focal
length decreases.
2. Elongation of the eye ball.
Correction
Corrected by using a Concave Lens of appropriate power.
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Calculate the Power of corrective lense in myopia when far point if given to you:
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2) Hypermetropia (Far -Sightedness)
A person cannot see nearby object clearly, but can see distant object distinctly.
In hypermetropia the image is formed behind the retina.
Reasons of hypermetropia
1. Increase in focal length of the eye lens (Thin eye lens)
2. Eye ball has become too small.
Correction
Corrected by using a Convex Lens of appropriate power.
Calculate the Power of corrective lense in Hypermetropia when near point if given to you:
A hypermetropic person has xcm as his near point. What will be the focal length and power of the
convex lens in his spectacles?
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Step 1: Given data
1. Near point of the person means image distance, v=-x cm
2. Since the near point of the normal eye is 25cm means object distance, u=-25cm
Step 2: Expression for focal length of the lens is shown below
1/f=1/v-1/u
Here v is image distance, u is object distance
Step 3: Calculate the focal length
Substitute -x cm for v and -25cm for u in the above expression of the focal length.
Step 4: Expression for the power of the lens is P(D) = 1/f(m)
3) Presbyopia
As we become old, the power of accommodation of the eye usually decreases, the near point
gradually recedes away. This defect is called Presbyopia, a special kind of Hypermetropia.
Person may suffer from both myopia and hypermetropia.
Reason : Gradual weakening of ciliary muscles and decreasing the flexibility of the eye lens.
Correction : Using Bifocal lens with appropriate power. Bifocal lens consist of both concave and
convex lens, upper position consist of concave lens and lower portion consist of convex lens.
4) Cataract : The image can not be seen distinctly because eye lens become milky and cloudy.
This condition is known as cataract, it can cause complete or partial loss of vision.
This can be corrected by surgical removal of extra growth (cataract surgery).
❖ REFRACTION OF LIGHT THROUGH A PRISM
Prism: It is a piece of glass or any transparent material bounded by triangular and three rectangular surfaces.
The rectangular surfaces are called refracting surfaces. The angle between two refracting surfaces is
called refracting angle or angle of prism.
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Consider a triangular glass prism. It has two triangular bases and three rectangular
lateral surfaces. These surfaces are inclined to each other.
(i) The refraction of light takes place at two surfaces firstly when light enters from air to prism and
secondly when light emerges from prism. So refraction occurs two times.
(ii) Angle of prism: The angle between the two lateral faces of the prism is called angle of prism.
(iii) Angle of deviation: The angle between incident ray (produced forward) and emergent ray (produced
backward).
Difference between refraction through glass prism and glass slab is as follows-
In slab, the emergent ray is parallel to the incident ray but in case of prism, emergent ray is not parallel to the
incident ray because opposite faces of prism eye are not parallel to each other. Unlike a rectangular slab, the
side of a glass prism are inclined at an angle called the angle of prism.
❖ DISPERSION OF WHITE LIGHT BY A GLASS PRISM
The splitting of light into its component colours is called dispersion. Red light bends the least while violet
bends the most.
Spectrum: The band of the coloured components of a light beam is called spectrum, i.e., VIBGYOR
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White light is dispersed into its seven-colour components by a prism. The different colours in the spectrum of
light have different wavelengths with respect to the incident ray as they pass through a prism.. Therefore, the
speed with which they all bend varies depending on their wavelength, where violet bends the most, having the
shortest wavelength and red bends the least, having the longest wavelength. Thus the rays of each colour
emerge along different paths and thus become distinct.
Because of this, the dispersion of white light into its spectrum of colours takes place when refracted through a
prism.
Sir Issac Newton was the first, who obtained spectrum of sunlight by using glass prism.
He tried to split the spectrum of white light more by using another similar prism, but he could not get any more
colours. He repeated the experiment using second prism in an inverted position with respect to the first prism.
Allowed all the colours of spectrum to pass through second prism. He found white light emerges on the other
side of second prism.
This observation gave Newton the idea that the sunlight is made up of seven colours. Any light that gives a
spectrum similar to that of sunlight is often referred to as white light.
❖ FORMATION OF RAINBOW
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A rainbow is a natural spectrum appearing in the sky after a rain shower . It is caused by dispersion of
sunlight by tiny water droplets, present in the atmosphere. A rainbow is always formed in a direction
opposite to that of the Sun. The water droplets act like small prisms. They refract and disperse the incident
sunlight, then reflect it internally, and finally refract it again when it comes out of the raindrop. Due to the
dispersion of light and internal reflection, different colours reach the observer’s eye. We can also see a
rainbow on a sunny day when we look at the sky through a waterfall or through a water fountain, with the
Sun behind you.
❖ ATMOSPHERIC REFRACTION
When light enters from one medium to another, there is a deviation in its path. This phenomenon is called
refraction of light. Atmosphere is composed of layers of various optical densities. Lower layers of
atmosphere are denser compared to the upper layers. Therefore light rays passing through various layers of
atmosphere get deviated. The phenomena of bending of light on passing through earth’s atmosphere is called
atmospheric refraction. Many interesting phenomenon can be observed because of atmospheric refraction.
Some of them are as follows:
1. Apparent position of Stars:
Stars are point sources of light, situated very far away from the earth. The starlight travels from optically
rarer medium to optically denser medium (earth’s atmosphere). The optical density and hence the refractive
index increases and the ray of light bends every time towards the normal. Therefore the apparent position is
higher than the actual position of the star.
2. Twinkling of stars:
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The twinkling of a star is due to atmospheric refraction of starlight. The starlight, on entering the earth's
atmosphere, undergoes refraction continuously before it reaches the earth. The atmospheric refraction occurs
in a medium of gradually changing refractive index. Since the atmosphere bends starlight towards the
normal, the apparent position of the star is slightly different from its actual position. The star appears slightly
higher (above) than its actual position when viewed near the horizon. Further, this apparent position of the
star is not stationary, but keeps on changing slightly, since the physical conditions of the earth's atmosphere
are not stationary. Since the stars are very distant, they are approximate point-sized sources of light. As the
path of rays of light coming from the star goes on varying slightly, the apparent position of the star fluctuates
and the amount of starlight entering the eye flickers, i.e. the star sometimes appears brighter, and at some
other time, fainter, which gives the twinkling effect.
Note:
Why don’t the planets twinkle?
The planets are much closer to the earth, and are thus seen as extended sources. A planet can be
considered as a collection of a large number of point-sized sources of light. Then the total variation in the
amount of light entering our eye from all the individual point-sized sources will average out to zero. This
will nullify the twinkling effect. Hence planets don’t twinkle.
3. Advance sunrise and delayed sunset:
The Sun is visible to us about 2 minutes before the actual sunrise, and about 2 minutes after the actual sunset
because of atmospheric refraction. By actual sunrise, we mean the actual crossing of the horizon by the Sun.
The time difference between actual sunset and the apparent sunset is about 2 minutes.
Advanced Sunrise:The Sun is actually below the horizon, so we as observer should not be able to see it. Due
to refraction it appears raised above the horizon so we are able to see it before it actually rises. Hence
advanced Sunrise.
Delayed Sunset: Similarly the Sun has already set , i.e gone below the horizon. Due to refraction, it appears
raised above the horizon, so we are able to see it. Hence delayed Sunset.
4. The apparent flattening of the Sun's disc at sunrise and sunset :
At sunrise and sunset, the sun is near the horizon. The rays of light from the upper part and the lower part
of the periphery bend unequally in earth’s atmosphere. Hence Sun appears flattened at sunrise and sunset.
Note:
At noon the Sun is overhead. The rays of light from the Sun enter earth’s atmosphere normally. So there is no
refraction when they pass through earth’s atmosphere. Hence Sun appears circular at noon.
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❖ SCATTERING OF LIGHT
It is the phenomena of change in direction / bouncing off of light by atoms/molecules (dust particle, water
droplet etc..) of the medium through which they are travelling.
When sunlight travels through the earth’s atmosphere, it gets scattered from a large number of
molecules/dust particles present in the atmosphere. Lord Rayleigh studied scattering and concluded the
following:
(i) Is α 1/λ4 : The intensity of scattered light is inversely proportional to the fourth power of the wavelength
of incident light.
(ii) Suppose x = size of scatter particle, λ = wavelength of light
If x<< λ then Rayleigh scattering is valid, but If x>> λ then Rayleigh scattering is not valid. Then all
the wavelengths are scattered nearly equally.
The conclusions of Rayleigh scattering have been experimentally verified by Tyndall.
1.Tyndall Effect:
When light passes through a colloidal medium, the path of the light becomes visible due to scattering of light
known as Tyndall effect. .
For Tyndall effect to be possible, the size of particles should be less than or equal to the wavelength of the
visible spectrum. So, the size of particles should be between 400 and 900 nanometer.
Illustrations of Tyndall Effect:
*When a fine beam of sunlight enters a smoke-filled room through a small hole, scattering of light makes the
smoke particles visible.
*When sunlight passes through a canopy of a dense forest, tiny water droplets in the mist scatter light.
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*The earth’s atmosphere is a heterogeneous mixture of minute particles. These particles include smoke, tiny
water droplets, suspended particles of dust and molecules of air. When a beam of light strikes such fine
particles, the path of the beam becomes visible.
*The white beam of light which appears to come through the ventilation or through a slit in the door. The
white beam appears because scattering of light makes the dust particles visible in the light.
The colour of scattered light depends on the size of scattering particles. Wavelength of blue light is much
smaller compared to the wavelength of red light. Fine particles of small size scatter mainly blue light.
Particles of larger size scatter mainly red light. When the size of the scattering particle is very large, all
wavelengths are scattered almost equally and the scattered light appears white.
2. Why is the colour of the clear Sky Blue?
The molecules of air and other fine particles in the atmosphere have size smaller than the wavelength of
visible light. These are more effective in scattering light of shorter wavelengths at the blue end than light of
longer wavelengths at the red end. The red light has a wavelength about 1.8 times greater than blue light.
Thus, when sunlight passes through the atmosphere, the fine particles in air scatter the blue colour (shorter
wavelengths) more strongly than red. The scattered blue light enters our eyes.
Also the sun emits a higher concentration of blue light waves in comparison to violet and indigo.
Furthermore, as our eyes are more sensitive to blue rather than violet this means to us the sky appears blue.
Why Sky appears dark to astronauts?
If the earth had no atmosphere, there would not have been any scattering. Then, the sky would have looked
dark. The sky appears dark to passengers flying at very high altitudes/astronauts, as scattering is not
prominent at such heights. This is because there are no / very less scattering particles.
Why is Red colour used in danger signals?
In the visible spectra, red colour has the maximum wavelength. So the red colour is least scattered by fog or
smoke. Therefore, it can be seen in the same colour at a large distance. 12
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3. Colour of the Sky at Sunrise and Sunset:
Light from the Sun near the horizon passes through thicker layers of air and larger distance in the earth’s
atmosphere before reaching our eyes. Near the horizon, most of the blue light and shorter wavelengths are
scattered away by the particles. Therefore, the light that reaches our eyes is of longer wavelengths. This gives
rise to the reddish appearance of the Sun during Sunrise & Sunset.
At Noon the Sun appears White:
Light from the Sun overhead would travel relatively shorter distance. At noon, only a little of the blue and
violet colours are scattered. Hence the Sun appears white.
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