GENERAL ZOOLOGY

INTRODUCTION

Animals differ from one form or another in size, structure, manner of life, and other features. Man has
acquired enough detailed knowledge about animals to fill a large library, but much more needs to be
learned, and there are many unanswered questions.
What is life? In what ways are the various kinds of animals alike or unlike in structure, internal
processes, and modes of life? How do animals carry on their activities? How are the many kinds related to
one another? How have they evolved? In what ways does the human being resemble and differ from other
living things? How are humans affected by animals, and how have their activities influenced those about
them? The answers to these questions are provided by the science of zoology (Greek zoon, animal +
logos, discourse), which deals with animal life.

OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

1. define zoology as a branch of biology;

2. trace the historical timeline of zoology;
3. become acquainted with notable personalities in the field;
4. identify the different specializations in zoology;
5. explain the family relationships among animals and how the great variety of animals arose; and
6. analyze how human interference threatens animal populations and the human environment

I. Introduction to Biology as Science

Science (Latin scientia, knowledge) is exact knowledge or tested and verified experience. It is our
way of carefully exploring our environment, the material universe. The raw materials of science are facts,
the real state of things. Science seeks facts to demonstrate the natural orderly relationships among
phenomena; it is self-testing and it avoids myth, legend, or bias (prejudice).

Science is a methodical approach to studying the natural world. Science asks basic questions, such as how
does the world work? How did the world come to be? What was the world like in the past, what is it like
now, and what will it be like in the future? These questions are answered using observation, testing, and
interpretation through logic. Most scientists would not say that science leads to an understanding of the
truth. Science is a determination of what is most likely to be correct at the current time with the evidence at
our disposal. Scientific explanations can be inferred from confirmable data only, and observations and
experiments must be reproducible and verifiable by other individuals. In other words, good science is
based on information that can be measured or seen and verified by other scientists.

Science comes from a Latin word scie, meaning, to know. It is a systematized body of knowledge or
information that aims to provide reliable information on different phenomena through experiment and
observations.
Science is an objective, logical, and repeatable attempt to understand the principles and forces
operating in the natural universe. Good science is not dogmatic (not fixed), but should be viewed as an
ongoing process of testing and evaluation.
Questions that do not lead to testable hypothesis are outside the domain of science, thus science cannot
answer all categories of questions.

Limitations of Science
The impact of all branches of science including biology on modern society is enormous. Because of
this, people regard science as potentially unlimited in its capacity to solve problems.
 However, science has its own limitations:
1. Questions that do not lead to testable hypothesis are outside the domain of science, thus science
cannot answer all categories of questions. For example, science cannot prove the existence of
God.
2. Science cannot guarantee solutions to troublesome problems. For example, there is not a
single scientist who can guarantee that the results of an experiment will always support a
hypothesis. Proving a hypotheses that are incorrect limit the ability to solve practical problems
immediately. Breakthroughs in the treatment of diseases do not develop suddenly. It took a long
time before the current promising treatment of cancer could be realized.
3. Science is limited by its ability to make moral or value judgments unless reflected on man's
material producing identical individuals can become beneficial or harmful. Science and technology
must there be tampered according to the needs of society for a better world.

Example: There is not a single scientist who can guarantee that the results of an experiment will always
support a hypothesis. Proving hypothesis that are incorrect limit the ability to solve practical problems
immediately. Breakthroughs in the treatment of diseases do not develop suddenly; it took a long time
before the current promising treatments could be realized.

The three areas of limitation are

Science can't answer questions about value. For example, there is no scientific answer to the questions,
"Which of these flowers is prettier?" or "which smells worse, a skunk or a skunk cabbage?" And of course,
there's the more obvious example, "Which is more valuable, one ounce of gold or one ounce of steel?" Our
culture places value on the element gold, but if what you need is something to build a skyscraper with, gold,
a very soft metal, is pretty useless. So there's no way to scientifically determine value.

Science can't answer questions of morality. The problem of deciding good and bad, right and wrong, is
outside the determination of science. This is why expert scientific witnesses can never help us solve the
dispute over abortion: all a scientist can tell you is what is going on as a fetus develops; the question of
whether it is right or wrong to terminate those events is determined by cultural and social rules.

Science can't help us with questions about the supernatural. The prefix "super" means "above." So
supernatural means "above (or beyond) the natural." The toolbox of a scientist contains only the natural
laws of the universe; supernatural questions are outside their reach.

Scientific Method
The scientific method is a process or sequence of activities undertaken to gather information and to come
to conclusions about the natural world. When one deliberately engages in the scientific method, he could
be motivated by mere curiosity or by just the need to know about the event or by the subject of his interest.
He could also be driven by his desire to produce material that will be a source of economic gains.
At the core of biology and other sciences lies a problem-solving approach called the scientific method, a
logical problem-solving approach used by biologists and many other scientists. It is a term denoting the
principles that guide scientific researches and experimentation. The scientific method has five basic steps,
plus one feedback step:

Make an observation.
Ask a question.
Form a hypothesis (educated guess), or testable explanation.
Make a prediction based on the hypothesis.
Test the prediction.
Iterate: use the results to make new hypotheses or predictions.

The scientific method is used in all sciences—including chemistry, physics, geology, and psychology.
The scientists in these fields ask different questions and perform different tests. However, they use the
same core approach to find answers that are logical and supported by evidence.

2
1. Making Observations and Gathering Knowledge About A Phenomenon (Initial Observation,
Recognition of a Problem and Defining It, Further Observation and Expanding Knowledge)
Man has the inherent capacity to observe the things around him. Careful observation could make
one recognize that there is a problem or a phenomenon that is worthy of further attention and study. After
initial observations, details not previously observed can be determined using instrumentation. Search and
review of related literature (books, scientific journals, online sources, etc.) should also be undertaken to
learn more about the problem.
2. Formulation of Hypothesis (Use of inductive
reasoning to provide a tentative solution to the
problem)

Scientists use generalizations to come up with

a hypothesis, which is an intelligent guess that is a
possible explanation for a natural event. The
hypothesis is presented as an actual statement and
must be testable.
3. Testing of Hypothesis (Experimentation and
Conduct of Further Observations)
In this phase, the scientist uses deductive
reasoning involving the “if, then” logic. Foresight or
the capability to predict what will happen next is
necessary to guide the scientist on how to go about
his experiment. The scientist must come up with an
experimental design that will make him generate
meaningful results. Usually a “control” or “control
group” is set up side by side with the experimental
group. This contains all components and undergoes
all parts of the experiment except for the factor being
tested.
Models (representation of the actual object) can be used in experimentation. They could be done
through computer simulations or use of laboratory animals. If the experiment or observation produces a
discrepancy between the prediction and the observable fact, then the scientist must change his hypothesis
or redo the experiment to verify further until he is fully convinced of findings (validation process).
4. Drawing of Conclusion (Analysis of Data to Determine whether the Hypothesis is Supported or Not,
Publication of Results)
Data are results of the
experiment which may lead one to
accept or reject the hypothesis initially
formulated. These should be
observable and objective. Mathematical
data are usually presented in tabulated
and graphical forms and may require
statistical analysis to confirm validity or
significance.
A conclusion is the answer to the
problem and based on a supported
hypothesis. Science is a progressive
process such that the conclusion of one
experiment can lead to the hypothesis

3
for another experiment. The results that do not support the hypothesis may be used by scientists to
formulate another hypothesis to be tested.
Conclusions from many different but related experiments may lead to the development of a
Scientific Theory, a general concept about the natural world. A theory, therefore, is a hypothesis that has
been repeatedly and extensively tested and always found to be true. However, no theory in science is ever
absolutely and finally proven. Scientists should be ready to alter or even abandon their most cherished
generalizations when new facts contradict them (Keeton and McFadden, 1983).

Biology as a Science
Posing questions about the living world and seeking answers through scientific inquiry are the central
activities of biology, the scientific study of life. The average person can distinguish most kinds of living
organisms from non-living organisms or inorganic matter, but this is not easy with some lower forms of life.

Attributes of Life
Living things on earth are composed of chemicals and are governed by the same laws of
physics and chemistry that govern non-living objects. Although living things are diverse, they share
characteristics that distinguish them from non-living things, such as the following:
1. Living things are composed of cells. All living things are made up of cells. Some organisms have
only one cell, some just have a few while others are made up of billions of cells. The living part of the
cell known as the protoplasm, is made up of substances that are in constant state of chemical
activity that establishes the “living condition”. The composition of the protoplasm varies from one
species to another, between individuals of the same species, in different parts of the individual and in
the same part at different times.
2. Living things have definite organization. All living things exhibit complex but ordered definite
organization. This is manifested in the organization of chemicals at the molecular level which
comprise the cell, the smallest basic unit of life. Cells are organized to form tissues, tissues combine
to form organs, organs work together to form systems and organs systems together compose an
organism. The organization extends beyond the individual organism. Individuals of the same species
form the population, which interact with other populations forming communities within the ecosystem.
Finally, the earth’s ecosystems comprise the biosphere.
3. Living things require energy from the environment and produce waste energy and chemicals.
Living things need continuous supply of energy in order to stay alive. The sun is the ultimate source
of energy for all living things. Both plants and animals, however, obtain energy more directly by the
breakdown of complex chemical substances we call food. This chemical process for getting energy
and using it for the maintenance of life called metabolism, has two opposing activities; anabolism
and catabolism. The constant expenditure of energy (catabolism) demands a corresponding intake of
energy by the cell for restorative purposes (anabolism). These occur continuously and are intricately
interdependent so that it is difficult to distinguish one from the other. During metabolism, waste
energy in the form of heat and chemical waste like CO2 are eliminated or released.
4. Living things grow and develop.

Growth pertains to enlargement or increase in size. Nonliving things such as stones and mountains
also increase their sizes but this is due to the addition of more materials on their surfaces ( accretion).
Living things grow by assimilation – a process wherein large and complicated molecules are formed
and incorporated in the organism.

4
 Growth may be uniform in some parts of the body or it may be differential, such that growth
may be greater in some parts than in other parts of the body. Growth may occur throughout the life
span of an organism, or only for some parts of its life history. Usually, when maturity is reached,
growth is reduced to repair of worn-out parts and/or to the replacement of vital /important
substances.
Development is the series of orderly changes that occur in an offspring from its beginning to
its maturity. It includes the following stages: a. beginning; b. growth; c. maturity; d. decline and e.
death.
5. Living things reproduce and inherit characteristics from parents.

Reproduction is the process by which organisms produce offspring that are similar to
themselves. It takes three forms:
1. division of a cell, as in simple, one-celled organisms.
2. formation of reproductive cells (gametes) such as the egg cell and sperm cells which unites in
fertilization to form the zygote.
3. removal from a parent organism a part capable of independent growth.
Inheritance is the passing of characteristics from one generation to the next. Living things
inherit from their parents a coded set of instructions on how to develop into a new organism.
6. Living things move and respond to stimuli.

Higher forms of animals can transfer from one place to another. This is called locomotion. It
can be done by walking, running, flying, hopping, swimming and etc. Some lower forms of animals
like the sponges and corals are fixed or sessile so their movement is restricted to beating of flagella
and muscular contraction. In plants, movement is even less obvious. Opening and closing of
flowers, elongation of stem and roots are some of the subtle ways by which plants grow.
The capability of an organism to respond to stimuli is called irritability. This depends upon
the sensitivity of the organism to the stimuli. A stimulus is any chemical or physical change that
causes reaction in an organism. Responses or reactions are very pronounced in animals whereas
these are hardly noticed in plants. Only one plant shows a very obvious response and that is
Mimosa pudica (locally known as “makahiya”).
7. Living things adapt to their environment
Adaptation is a characteristic of an organism that makes it able to live in its environment.
The adaptation of the fish is a structural adaptation.
Conditions in an environment change from time to time. Some organisms are capable of
making their body temperatures constant even when the environmental temperature changes.
These homeotherms or warm-blooded animals (man and birds) possess “built in” or physiological
adaptations. On the other hand, reptiles and amphibians, which are cold -blooded or
poikilotherms, lack physiological mechanisms to keep their body temperature constant. It fluctuates
with the changing environmental temperature so these cold blooded animals resort to behavioral
adaptations; they dig into burrows when it is warm at the surface and increase metabolism by
running or hopping during cold days. Through these, they are able to regulate their body
temperature.
8. Living things have life span. Life span is defined as the definite period of existence of an
organism. The life span varies from one species to another. For example, some insects live only
for a few hours and some for a few weeks. Some plants live for a month or more while some trees
can live for over a century. Some individuals may live shorter than their life expectancy, especially
when they are exposed to harsh conditions. When conditions are no longer favorable for the
activities of life, then life ceases.
9. Living things have critical relationship with the environment.

5
 All organisms face a constant struggle for life. They struggle for the physical factors like
water, sunlight, temperature and other requirements for maintaining life. They also struggle with
other living things that could be natural enemies or competitors for required needs in order to live.
The struggle for existence is constantly a problem to all living things.

Levels of Organization

Atoms The fundamental units of matter

Molecules Specific arrangements of atoms
Cells The smallest unit that displays the characteristics of life
Tissues Groups of cells that work together to perform particular
functions
Organs A group of tissues that work together to perform a particular
function
Organ Systems A group of organs that work together to perform a particular
function
Organism An independent living unit
Population A group of individual organisms of a particular kind
Community Populations of different kinds of organisms that interact with
one another in a particular place
Ecosystem Communities (groups of populations) that interact with the
physical world in a particular place
Biosphere The worldwide ecosystem

II. Zoology: The Study of Animals

Zoology (Gr. zoon, animal + logos, to study) is the study of animals. It is one of the broadest fields in
all of science because of the immense variety of animals and the complexity of the processes occurring
within animals.
Animals form a distinct branch on the evolutionary tree of life. It is a large and old branch that
originated in the Precambrian seas over 600 million years ago. Animals form part of an even larger limb
called eukaryotes, organisms whose cells contain membrane-enclosed nuclei. This larger limb includes
plants, fungi, and numerous unicellular forms. Perhaps the most distinctive characteristic of animals as a
group is their means of nutrition, which consists in eating other organisms. Animal evolution has elaborated
this basic way of life through diverse systems for capturing and processing a wide array of food items and
for locomotion.
We distinguish animals also by the absence of characteristics that have evolved in other eukaryotes
but not in animals. Plants, for example, use light energy to produce organic compounds (photosynthesis),
and they have evolved rigid cell walls that surround their cell membranes; photosynthesis and cell walls do
not occur in animals. Fungi acquire nutrition by absorption of small organic molecules from their
environments, and their body plan contains tubular filaments called hyphae; these structures do not occur
in the animal kingdom.
Some organisms that are neither animals nor plants combine properties of animals and plants. For
example, Euglena (Figure 1.1) is a motile, single-celled organism that resembles plants in being
photosynthetic, but resembles animals in its ability to eat food particles. Euglena is part of a separate
eukaryotic lineage that diverged from those of plants and animals early in the evolutionary history of
eukaryotes. Euglena and other unicellular eukaryotes formerly were grouped as the kingdom Protista,
although this kingdom is an arbitrary grouping of taxa that are not each other’s closest relatives and thus
violates taxonomic principles.

6
 Figure 1.1 Some organisms that are neither animals nor plants, such as single-celled Euglena, combine
properties that distinguish animals (locomotion) from plants (photosynthetic ability).

III. Specializations in Zoology

Zoology is one of the broadest branches of science. There are, for example, more than 28,000
described species of bony fishes and more than 400,000 described (and many more undescribed) species
of beetles! It is no wonder that zoologists usually specialize in one or more of the sub-disciplines of
zoology. They may study particular functional, structural, or ecological aspects of one or more animal
groups, or they may choose to specialize in a particular group of animals.
Some specializations of zoology are:

Table 1.1 Some specializations in Zoology

SUBDISCIPLINE DESCRIPTION
Anatomy Study of the structure of entire organisms and their parts
Cytology Study of the structure and function of cells
Comparative Genomics Study of the structure, function, and evolution of the genetic
and Bioinformatics composition of groups of animals using computer-based
computational methods
Ecology Study of the interaction of organisms with their environment
Embryology Study of the development of an animal from the fertilized egg
to birth or hatching
Genetics Study of the mechanisms of transmission of traits from
parents to offspring
Histology Study of tissues
Molecular biology Study of subcellular details of structure and function
Parasitology Study of animals that live in or on other organisms at the
expense of the host
Physiology Study of the function of organisms and their parts
Systematics Study of the classification of, and the evolutionary
interrelationships among, animal groups
Paleontology Study of fossil animals and their distribution in time
Evolution Study of the origin and differentiation of animal life
Taxonomy Study of the classification of animals and principles thereof

Zoology is also divided for the study of particular animal groups:

Table 1.2. Some specializations in Zoology by Taxonomic Categories

SUBDISCIPLINE DESCRIPTION
Entomology Study of insects
Herpetology Study of amphibians and reptiles
Ichthyology Study of fishes
Mammalogy Study of mammals
Ornithology Study of birds
Protozoology Study of protozoa
Helminthology Study of various worms
7
IV. Zoology: An Evolutionary Perspective

Animals share a common evolutionary past and evolutionary forces that influenced their
history. Evolutionary processes are remarkable for their relative simplicity, yet they have had awesome
effects on life-forms. These processes have resulted in an estimated 4 to 10 million species of animals
living today. (Over 1 million animal species have been described.) Many more, about 90%, existed in the
past and have become extinct. Zoologists must understand evolutionary processes if they are to
understand what an animal is and how it originated.
Evolution explains how the diversity of animals arose. Organic evolution (L. evolutus, unroll) is
change in the genetic makeup of populations of organisms over time. It is the source of animal diversity,
and it explains family relationships within animal groups. Understanding how the diversity of animal
structure and function arose is one of the many challenges faced by zoologists.

Figure 1.2. A scale-eating cichlid (Perissodus

microlepis)
A Scale-Eating Cichlid. Scale-eaters
(Perissodus microlepis) attack from behind as
they feed on scales of prey fish. Two body forms
are maintained in the population. In one form, the
mouth is asymmetrically curved to the right and
attacks the prey’s left side. The second form has
the mouth curved to the left and attacks the prey’s
right side. Both right- and left-jawed forms are
maintained in the population and prey do not
become wary of being attacked from one side.
Perissodus microlepis is endemic (found only in)
to Lake Tanganyika. A male with its brood of
young is shown here (Figure 1.2).

Evolutionary relationships are the basis for the classification of animals into a hierarchical
system. This classification system uses a two-part name for every kind of animal. Higher levels of
classification denote more distant evolutionary relationships. Like all organisms, animals are named and
classified into a hierarchy of relatedness. Although Carl von Linne (1707–1778) is primarily remembered for
collecting and classifying plants, his system of naming—binomial nomenclature—has also been adopted for
animals.
A two-part name describes each kind of organism. The first part is the genus name, and the second
part is the species epithet. Each kind of organism (a species)—for example, the cichlid scale-eater
Perissodus microlepis—is recognized throughout the world by its two-part species name. Verbal or written
reference to a species refers to an organism identified by this two-part name. The species epithet is
generally not used without the accompanying genus name or its abbreviation. Above the genus level,
organisms are grouped into families, orders, classes, phyla, kingdoms, and domains, based on a hierarchy
of relatedness (Figure 1.3).

8
 Figure 1.3. Hierarchy of Relatedness. The classification of a housefly, horsefly, cichlid fish, and human
illustrates how the classification system depicts degrees of relatedness.

 Organisms in the same species are more closely related than organisms in the same genus, and
organisms in the same genus are more closely related than organisms in the same family, and so
on.
 Classification of animals into taxonomic groupings leads in making hypotheses about the extent to
which groups of animals share DNA, even when they study variations in traits like jaw structure,
color patterns, and behavior, because these kinds of traits ultimately are based on the genetic
material.

The knowledge of evolutionary processes helps zoologists understand the great diversity of structure
and function present in animals. Evolution also helps zoologists understand relationships among animals.
These evolutionary relationships are ultimately based on shared DNA, they are reflected in inherited
morphological characteristics, and they are represented by groupings in the classification system. The
hierarchical nature of the naming system is reflected in groups becoming more inclusive as one moves
from species to domain.

V. Zoology: An Ecological Perspective

Just as important to zoology as an evolutionary perspective is an ecological perspective. Ecology (Gr.

okios, house + logos, to study) is the study of the relationships between organisms and their environment.
Throughout our history, humans have depended on animals, and that dependence too often has led to
exploitation. We depend on animals for food, medicines, and clothing. We also depend on animals in other,
more subtle ways. This dependence may not be noticed until human activities upset the delicate ecological
balances that have evolved over hundreds of thousands of years.

Animals share common environments, and ecological principles help us understand how
animals interact within those environments. In the 1950s, the giant Nile perch (Lates niloticus) was
introduced into Lake Victoria in an attempt to increase the lake’s fishery (Figure 1.4).

The introduction of the Nile perch has resulted to many negative impacts. These are as follows:
 This reduced the cichlid population from 80% to less than 1% of the total fish biomass (total mass of
all fish in the lake).
 Predation by the Nile perch has also resulted in the extinction of 65% of the cichlid species.
 Because many of the cichlids fed on algae, the algae in the lake grew uncontrolled. When algae died
and decayed, much of the lake became depleted of its oxygen.
 When Nile perch are caught, their excessively oily
flesh must be dried. Fishermen cut local forests for
the wood needed to smoke the fish, which resulted
in severe deforestation around the lake.
 The resulting runoff of soil into the lake has caused
further degradation.
9
  Decreased water quality not only presented problems for the survival of individual cichlids, but also
increased turbidity that interfered with critical behavioral functions. Many of these species rely on their
bright colors as visual cues during mating. Mouth-brooding species rely on vision to pick up
developing eggs. The loss of Lake Victorian cichlids may be the largest extinction event of
vertebrate species in modern human history.

However, there are still some hopeful signs of the story:

 Although many Lake Victorian species have been lost forever, some cichlids are recovering. Heavy
fishing pressure on the Nile perch has reduced its population density in latter years. This decline has
promoted the recovery of some cichlids that feed on small animals in the upper portions of open-
water areas. (The Nile perch is predominately a bottom-dwelling predator.)
 One cichlid (Haplochromis pyrrhocephalus) is faring better than most other cichlid species. Over a 20-
year period, scientists have observed rapid evolution of increased gill surface area and associated
changes in head morphology, which have allowed this species to survive the lowered oxygen
concentrations now present in Lake Victoria.

Human overpopulation is at the root of virtually all other environmental problems. It stresses
world resources and results in pollution, climate change, deforestation, and the extinction of many
plant and animal species. An understanding of basic ecological principles can help prevent ecological
disasters. Understanding how matter is cycled and recycled in nature, how populations grow, and how
organisms in our lakes and forests use energy is fundamental to preserving the environment. There are no
easy solutions to our ecological problems. Unless we deal with the problem of human overpopulation,
however, solving the other problems will be impossible. Bold and imaginative steps toward improved social
and economic conditions and better resource management are needed.

SUMMARY
Zoology is the scientific study of animals, and it is part of biology, the scientific study of life. Animals and life
in general can be identified by attributes that they have acquired over their long evolutionary histories. The
most outstanding attributes of life include chemical uniqueness, complexity and hierarchical organization,
reproduction, possession of a genetic program, metabolism, development, interaction with the environment,
and movement. Biological systems comprise a hierarchy of integrative levels (molecular, cellular,
organismal, populational, and species levels), each of which demonstrates specific emergent properties.
Scientists construct knowledge by formulating and then testing hypotheses through observations of
the natural world. Science is guided by natural law, and its hypotheses are testable, tentative, and
falsifiable. Zoological sciences are subdivided into two categories, experimental sciences and evolutionary
sciences. Experimental sciences use the experimental method to ask how animals perform their basic
metabolic, developmental, behavioral, and reproductive functions, including investigations of their
molecular, cellular, and populational systems. Evolutionary sciences use the comparative method to
reconstruct the history of life, and then use that history to explain how diverse species and their molecular,
cellular, organismal, and populational properties arose through evolutionary time.
A hypothesis that withstands repeated testing and therefore explains many diverse phenomena
gains the status of a theory. Powerful theories that guide extensive research are called “paradigms.” The
major paradigms that guide the study of zoology are Darwin’s theory of evolution and the chromosomal
theory of inheritance.
The principles given in this chapter illustrate the unity of biological science. All components of
biological systems are guided by natural laws and are constrained by those laws. Living organisms arise
only from other living organisms, just as new cells can be produced only from pre-existing cells.
Reproductive processes occur at all levels of the biological hierarchy and demonstrate both heredity and
variation. Interaction of heredity and variation at all levels of the biological hierarchy produces evolutionary
change and has generated the great diversity of animal life documented in this book.

10