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Betrayal of Palestine
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Betrayal of Palestine:
The Story of
George Antonius
Susan Silsby Boyle
Westview
press
A Member of the Perseus Books Group
All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. No part of this publication may
be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, in-
cluding photocopy, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without
permission in writing from the publisher.
Copyright © 2001 by Westview Press, A Member of the Perseus Books Group
Published in 2001 in the United States of America by Westview Press, 5500 Central Avenue,
Boulder, Colorado 80301, and in the United Kingdom by Westview Press, 12 Hid's Copse
Road, Cumnor Hill, Oxford OX2 9JJ
Find us on the World Wide Web at www.westviewpress.com
Cataloging-in-Publication Data available at the Library of Congress
The paper used in this publication meets the requirements of the American National Stan-
dard for Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials Z39.48-1984,
PERSEUS
POD
O N DEMAND 1 0 9 8 7 6 5 4 3
To Neil
We hold these truths to be self-evident,
that all men are created equal...
—The Unanimous Declaration of the
Thirteen United States of America, In Congress, 4 July 1776
Since we know memories will persist for a long time—we aim to
acknowledge those memories. This is critical if we are to build a
democracy of self-respecting citizens. As a victim of injustice and
oppression, you lose your sense of worth as a person, your dignity.
Restorative justice is focused on restoring the personhood that is
damaged or lost. But restoring that sense of self means restoring
memory-—a recognition that what happened to you happened. You are
not crazy. Something seriously evil happened to you. That
acknowledgement is crucial if healing is to go on and the
undercurrents of conflict are not to be left simmering, as they have
been so many times in so many parts of the world.
—Archbishop Desmond Tutu
(in "The World Is Hungry for Goodness")
Contents
List of Illustrations xi
Preface xiii
Acknowledgments xvii
Author's Note on Transliteration xxi
Chronology xxiii
1 Facing the Truth, 1939 1
The Arab Awakening and the St. James's Palace Conference
Palace Conference, 1
The Arab Delegation, 4
The Examination of British Promises and Pledges, 7
The Anglo-Arab Meetings and Proposals, 10
Conclusion of the Conference, 15
Notes, 18
2 The Arab Nation 23
The Levantine Legacy: Inclusive Diversity, 24
Arab Nation: A Culture and a Moral Framework of Being, 27
The Ottoman Empire and the Arab National Movement, 33
Alexandria: Cosmopolitan Society of the Age, 38
Education: The World As His Book, 42
King's College and the Arab Cause, 48
The Student and Patriot on the Eve of War, 50
Notes, 52
3 World War I 57
British Support for Arab Independence, 57
Revolt and Death, 1916, 62
The Balfour Declaration, 1917,65
Restraining France and Zionism, 1918, 69
Arab Nation, Political Zionism, 71
Notes, 74
vii
viii Contents
4 Betrayal 78
Arab Patriots and the Paris Peace Conference, 1919, 79
The King-Crane Report on the Arab Position, 1919,83
Zionist Influences, 1919, 86
Half a Peace, 88
T, E. Lawrence and Churchill, 92
Notes, 95
5 Constitutional Government 99
Ground Rules for Palestine, 1921,100
Palestine's Magna Charta: Covenant of Nations, 104
Constitutional Democracy, 108
The Legislative Council, 1922, 111
Decentralized Governance, 114
Educational Policy, 118
Loss of Confidence, 120
Notes, 122
6 Resignation: A Protest 126
Problems in the Department of Education, 127
A. J. Balfour, 128
Negotiating Territorial Boundaries, 131
Driven to Resign, 136
Notes, 142
7 The 1929 Disturbances 145
The Western Wall Dispute, 146
Outbreak of Major Disturbances: August 1929,155
Notes, 160
8 A Moment of Hope 164
The Shaw Commission of Inquiry, 1929,165
Land Ownership, 166
Cooperation, 171
Hope for Cultivators, 177
Land Management, 178
Notes, 181
9 Representative Government 185
A Black-Letter Day, 186
Factionalism and the Muslim Congress, 188
Contents ix
Land, 190
Machinery of Government, 194
Advising the High Commissioner, 197
Notes, 204
10 Syria and Lectures, 1935 208
Problems in Syria, 209
The Arab Awakening, 214
The Arab National Movement: 1935 Lectures, 218
Notes, 220
11 The Palestinians Revolt: 1936-1938 224
The First Six Months: April-October 1936, 225
Notes, 239
12 Prejudge and Partition 243
The Peel Commission of Inquiry, 1936-1937, 244
The Partition Plan and Renewed Revolt, 1937-1938,254
Notes, 262
13 War and Death 266
The London Conference Aftermath, 266
American Friends and Arab Federation, 272
Notes, 286
Conclusion 290
Notes, 301
Appendix: Interim Report, Final Version 305
Selected Bibliography 329
Index 00
This page intentionally left blank
Illustrations
Portrait of George Antonius xxviii
Palestinian school band 108
Contributions for the afflicted during the revolt 233
Palestine Revolt, volunteers 236
St. James's Palace Conference, London 270
Palestinian debating team 294
xi
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Preface
Biography is a wonderful way to learn history, because it makes stories
personal, and historical events more accessible and less abstract. This
book is about a unique individual who lived during a dramatic period of
history and amid a challenge that remains unresolved: the Palestinian-
Zionist conflict. Although this is a personal story, its writing was moti-
vated by the desire to rediscover the meaning of Antonius's personal life
in the public context, and not by any prurient interest in private affairs. It
therefore focuses on the part of Antonius's life that is most closely inter-
twined with the Palestinian question: his public service. It retraces his
work and his thought, his analyses of the problems of his day—particu-
larly those pertaining to Palestine—and his recommendations for solving
them. In so doing, it shows that the solutions have been there all along, in
the people and traditions of the Middle East,
Antonius's portrait reveals a powerful mind that refused to sacrifice a
world of faith and a traditional way of life, and that was at the same time
very modern. Antonius was an Arab intellectual whose European educa-
tion, transposed onto an Arab heritage, never stunted his ability to see
the complex reality of his nation. He was brilliant, multilingual, curious,
passionate, and above all, committed to leading a meaningful and moral
life devoted to truth, justice, and the protection of the weak and vulnera-
ble.
Antonius was not born a Palestinian, When he moved to Jerusalem in
1921—just a year after Greater Syria was split into two, with French
forces occupying the north, and British forces in the southern portion,
which was called Palestine—most residents of the territory did not yet
identify themselves as Palestinians. Antonius had been born in the vil-
lage of Dair al-Qamar, in the Chouf (mountains) of Lebanon, at the time a
part of Greater Syria. Palestine was situated within the Fertile Triangle
and was also a part of the Greater Syrian administrative division under
the Ottoman Empire. Pre-World War I Palestine included three districts
(sanjaqs)—Acre (corresponding to Galilee and Haifa), Nablus, and
Jerusalem—and with the exception of Jerusalem (which reported directly
to Ottoman authorities in Constantinople), was subsumed under the
province of Beirut, Its territory was home to hundreds of villages and
xiii
xiv Preface
towns with centuries-old histories and families that could trace their lin-
eage back to the great civilizations and the early in-migrations from East
and West. Before World War I, Palestinians identified themselves accord-
ing to the area, town or village where they lived—for Haifa, Nablus, and
other parts of Palestine had their own distinct characteristics, with their
own prominent families and local leaders.1 Despite the different factions
and hierarchies, despite the competition and the inequality among the
three districts, beneath the surface Antonius sensed a unity of language
and culture, a shared sense of morality due to ancient faiths, and a com-
mon devotion to family that encompassed all of the Arab nation.
For Antonius, Palestine—separated front Syria—became a microcosm
of the Arab national movement, which sought to sustain an authentic
voice and integrity of language, custom, and culture amid great change
and adaptation. Antonius arrived as an outsider, Some might never con-
sider him Palestinian, for he was not born there; he had no local roots,
family, or connections to the parochial world of elite notables. Still, he be-
came rooted in Palestine, found meaning in it, and devoted himself as an
Arab patriot to a world he knew was part of his own. For Palestine was
in spirit and fact part of Antonius's Arab nation. Through his devotion
and public service, he became a Palestinian, sacrificing his career to stand
for principle, and preferring to abstain from membership in political par-
ties and associations or organization that he saw as weakening the body
social by serving as vehicles for petty personal and partisan disputes. He
did not romanticize reality; by speaking plainly against an immature po-
litical reality of corrupt elections, factionalism, and self-centered leaders,
he hoped to secure good governance for the public good and the good of
the nation. He was perhaps best known as a public servant, open to the
world yet discriminating and powerful in his perception of injustice and
his demand for institutions and organizations that could empower and
enable his nation. The simplicity of his words should not lead us to un-
derestimate their import, for the message he shared was powerful and
far ahead of its time. It is a message as compelling today as it was then.
Some have described Antonius as a bridge. He made it his mission to
introduce his nation to the world that existed beyond the stereotypes of
empire. He sought to facilitate a shift in cultural paradigms—from that of
empire, rooted to a conqueror's code, to that of nation. The real culture
clash was between a code that yielded to greed and ignorance, to plunder
and abuse of power; and one that compelled restraint, common concern,
and social conscience. The warrior code no longer compelled trust and le-
gitimated leadership. The moral code of caring for family, community,
and nation required new skills, different virtues, and the exercise of cre-
ativity, courage, faith, and intellect far more than sheer force. To Anto-
nius, a culture that was hospitable, that elevated men to work hard and
Preface xv
care for their family and community, was far superior to any culture
claiming superiority based on abstract symbols of wealth and power. An-
tonius remained aware of the elusive wealth of his society and nation, a
wealth far beyond material assets; it was this underlying culture of
morality and shared meaning that sustained his hope, despite the
tragedies of a lifetime. His story is that of betrayal by empires and indi-
viduals—betrayal not only of promises made to Arabs but also of the uni-
versal moral code of fairness, justice, and truth. The struggle that ensued
continues to this day, as an age-old conqueror's code battles an ancient
web of culture and humanity in the Arab world that was then—and re-
mains—very modern in its promotion of a moral community.
Notes
1. Salim Tamari, "Factionalism and Class Formation in Recent Palestinian His-
tory," in Studies in the Economic and Social History of Palestine in the Nineteenth and
Twentieth Centuries, ed. Roger Owen (Carbondale and Edwardsville: Southern
Illinois University Press, 1982), pp. 177-202.
This page intentionally left blank
Acknowledgments
The first person who helped me with this work was Hisham Sharabi,
professor at Georgetown University. I will always be grateful to him for
his encouragement and for directing me to the gold mine of material on
George Antonius in the Israel State Archives. I am also grateful to
Georgetown University, the Fulbright Committee, and the University of
London's Institute of Historical Research for their support. I thank the li-
brarians and archivists who assisted me during research at the Univer-
sity of Durham, Oxford University, Cambridge University, Georgetown
University, the Big Horn Basin Library, the Institute of Current World Af-
fairs, the U.S. Archives, the Israel State Archives in Hakirya, the Public
Record Office, and the British Museum.
For use of the Gilbert Clayton Papers and for permission to reproduce
quotations from various letters and documents, I am indebted to the Su-
dan Archives of the University of Durham; and to the Middle East Center
at St. Antony's College, Oxford for use of various collections including
the papers of Humphrey Bowman, Sir John Chancellor, Thomas
Hodgkin, Sir Miles Lampson, Harry St. John Philby, and Lionel Smith.
My appreciation goes to the provost and scholars at King's College, Cam-
bridge and to the Society of Authors (the literary representatives of the E.
M, Forster Estate) for permission to quote from E. M. Forster correspon-
dence. I also wish to thank the Richmond family for permission to quote
from Ernest Richmond material I thank Penguin U.K. for permission to
quote from Antonius's book The Arab Awakening, and Oxford University
Press for permission to quote from Arnold Toynbee's Acquaintances. For
photographs I am indebted to Before Their Diaspora: A Photographic History
of the Palestinians, 1876-1948, by Walid Khalidi, Institute for Palestine
Studies.
Some of my best insights into the person Antonius was, and what he
was up against, came through personal meetings, interviews, and corre-
spondence. I am indebted to Diana Vincent Forbes Sheean, Sir Harold
Beeley, Sally Chilvers, Stewart Perowne, Sir John Richmond, Sir Hugh
Mackintosh Foot, Edward Hodgkin, Albert Hourani, Stephen Nimr, So-
raya Antonius, and Samuel and Lady Mary Clayton for the time they
spent with me.
xvii
xviii Acknowledgments
Many others have helped indirectly to shape my understanding of the
subject: I am especially grateful to the seminal work by Carlton Hayes on
nation and nationalism, and by Douglass North, Robert Putnam, and
Kenneth Arrow on institutions, social capital, and the role of government
in protecting that which cannot be priced. Ammiel Alcalay's After Jews
and Arabs: Remaking Levantine Culture; and Robert IIbert, IIios Yannakakis,
and Jacques Hassoun's Alexandrie, 1860-1960: Un modèle éphémère de can-
v'wialM: Communautés et identité cosmopolite, devoted to Alexandria, are
wonderfully compelling narratives that enhanced my understanding of
Antonius. The early writing about George Antonius by Albert Hourani
and Thomas Hodgkin was also especially insightful and helpful, as were
the works on colonialism and empire by Partha Chatterjee and Eric Hob-
sbawm, and David Fromkin's A Peace to End All Peace.
I thank all whose comments and questions helped me probe further.
For their much-appreciated contributions of reference and archival mate-
rials, and/or their critical comments and insights on various drafts, I es-
pecially thank Neil Boyle, Lawrence Davidson, the late Albert Hourani,
Yusuf Ibish, Ibrahim Ibrahim, Tarif Khalidi, Roger Owen, Edward Said,
Hisham Sharabi, Salim Tamari, Judith Tucker, and Albert Wight.
My efforts to supplement primary sources in English with Arabic-lan-
guage sources—especially with personal correspondence between Anto-
nius and his Arab friends and colleagues, as well as articles he might
have written for the Arabic press—proved disappointing; the turmoil in
the region during two world wars and protracted civil strife left few such
remnants. Nevertheless, I thank those who assisted me in these attempts:
George Irani, whom I employed for the last search; and many others who
responded to my queries—at the Arab American Anti-Discrimination
Committee and at the Institute of Palestine Studies in Beirut and Wash-
ington, D.C., especially Mona Nsouli, and members of the al-Alami, Abd
al-Hadi, Abd al-Shoman, Haidar, Hannano, Husseini, Jabiri, Kayyali,
Khalidi, Mardam, Nashashibi, Sleiman, and Sohl families.
I am deeply grateful to Nahed Wasfi, Fulbright scholar at UCLA (2000)
and assistant professor in linguistics and translation at al-Azhar Univer-
sity, for her generous assistance in correlating the meanings of English
words used by Antonius with Arabic equivalents.
The complexities of working with sources in several languages—and
with various styles of transliteration—were many. I thank my readers,
past, present, and future, for their tolerance of the resultant inconsisten-
cies in the spelling of Arabic words and names; for although I have done
my best to standardize them, variations inevitably remain.
For their help in bringing this book to publication, I am grateful to
Westview Press—especially to Barbara Greer for overseeing the entire
production, to Rebecca Ritke for her masterful editing, and to Karl Yam-
Acknowledgments xix
bert for his unflagging support. I also thank Dina Khoury for her early
encouragement; Connie Eysenck for her much valued contribution in
getting the process started; and Joost Polak for gifted editing and for ask-
ing the tough questions that helped achieve clarity. I thank Marjorie
Farmer for her tireless cheer and meticulous help, and my numerous typ-
ists, especially Heidi Griffith. I also wish to thank that lovely Palestinian
family that watched over me during my stay in Ramallah; the Abu
Khalid, Audeh, Dzuback, and Wight families; and the people of Basin,
Wyoming—a town of 1,180—for helping me appreciate the true meaning
of social capital and village and town life.
Most of all, I thank my parents for their example, and my mother, for
her steadfast support; my husband, for a love that emboldens and for be-
ing so much a part of this journey; and finally, our two wonderful daugh-
ters, for the great joy and laughter that balanced the telling of this tale.
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