_ L Cell Structure and Function Acell ‘the smallest, basic unit of life that performs essential functions such as growth, re production, and energy processing, and serves as the structural and functional building blo ck of all living organisms. Itis the fundamental unit of life, acting as the smallest structure capable of carrying out all lif es essential processes. It serves as the building block for all living organisms, whether they ar e single-celled organisms lke bacteria or complex multicellular organisms like humans. Interms of size and number, cells can vary widely across organisms. Singlecelled organisms like bacteria consist of one cell that performs all life functions. In contrast, multicellular organ isms have a wide variety of cell types, each specialized for particular tasks. Humans, for exa mple, have billions of cells with varying shapes and sizes, adapted to perform unique functio ns. Despite their differences, all cells share common structural components and operate under si ilar biological principles. These include providing structure, processing nutrients for energy, and ensuring the organism's growth and reproduction. Furthermore, cells contain genetic mat etial, which not only determines the organism's characteristics but also guides cellular activiti es and division. Discovery of Cells The discovery of cells marked atumning paint in biological science, revealing that all living org anisms are composed of these basic units. Understanding calls and their functions has deep ened our comprehension of life and its processes, Robert Hooke's Initial Discovery (1665) In 1665, Robert Hooke became the first scientist to discover cells. He examined at hin slice of cork using acompound microscope. He observed small, box-like structures that resembled tiny rooms or “cells” (a term derived from the Latin word for small rooms). © However, due to the limitations of his microscope’s magnification, Hooke could on! “d rT_ L y see the outer walls of the cells, not their intemal components. He mistakenly believe d these were norrliving structures. Antonie van Leeuwenhoek's Advancements: * Later, Antonie van Leeuwenhoek, using a more advanced microscope with better magnification, made further discoveries in cell biology. * Leeuwenhoek observed living cells in samples of pond water, noting that these cell s exhibited movement, which he interpreted as evidence of life. © Hereferred to these moving entities as “animalcules’ emphasizing their living nat ure, unlike Hooke’ earlier norliving observation of cork cells Robert Brown's Identification of the Nucleus (1833) «In 1833, Robert Brown, a Scottish botanist, made a significant discovery regarding cell structure. © While examining orchid cells, he identified the presence of a prominent structure w ithin the cell, which he named the “nucleus” © This discovery provided the first detailed insight into the internal components of a cell, further advancing our understanding of cellular organization. ‘Types of Cells Based on their structural differences, cells are broadly classified into two main types: 1. Prokaryotic 2. Eukaryotic Prokaryotic Cells: © Prokaryotic cells lack a true nucleus. Instead, their genetic material is suspended i na region knownas the nucleoid. «These cells are typically single celled microorganisms, including bacteria, archaea an d cyanobacteria, + Prokaryotes are much smaller in size, ranging from 0.1 to 0.5 ym in diameter, making them simplerin structure. “d rTa L Their hereditary material consists of either DNA or RNA, and unlike eukaryotes, prokar yotes do not have membrane-bound organelles. Reproduction in prokaryotes occurs primarily through binary fission. type of asexual reproduction where a cell splits into two identical offspring. Additionally, some prokary otes engage in conjugation a process often considered a form of genetic exchange ra ther than true sexual reproduction. Eukaryotic Cells Eukaryotic cells are more complex and characterized by a true nucfeus, which houses the cals genetic material These cells are much larger than prokaryotes, typically measuring between 10-100 m in diameter. Eukaryotic cells are found in a wide range of organisms, including plants, fungi, proto zoans, and animals. The plasma membrane surrounding eukaryotic cells plays a crucial role in regulating t he movement of nutrients, electrolytes, and other substances in and out of the cell. ta Iso facilitates communication between cells Eukaryotes reproduce both sexually and asexually, depending on the organism and en vironmental conditions. Contrasting Features in Eukaryotic Cells: © There are distinct differences between plant and animal eukaryotic cells. For exam ple, plant cells contain chloroptasts, which are essential for photosynthesis, and la fge central vacuole for storage. In contrast, animal cellslack these structures but p ossess other organelles such as /ysosomes for digesting cellular waste Structure of Cell The cell structure consists of various components and cell organelles with distinct fun “] etions. They are: Cell Wall Cell wall is a characteristic feature of plant cell. It comprises the outermost layer of the cell. Cell wall is made up of gelatin, cellulose, and hemicellulose. It protects the plasma -_ L membrane. It is a rigid and immovable structure enclosing the cell membrane. It protect s the cells from mechanical shocks and damage while providing them form and suppo rt. Cell wall is absent in animal cells. Cell Membrane The cell membrane, also known as the plasma membrane, forms the outer boundary of the c all, enclosing all other organdlles such as the cytoplasm and the nucleus. cell membrane surrounds the cell. The cell membrane divides cells into the internal a rd extemal components of the cell. It protects a cell's integrity and regulates the flow 0 f materials into and out of the cell as it is semi-permeable. Two layers of phospholipid molecules form the cell membrane. The cell membrane proteins provides structural sup port, facilitate material transport, act as receptor sites for signaling molecules and tran sport substances across the membrane. cytoplasm The gel-like substance that fills a cell is called cytoplasm. Cytoplasm functions as the site where various cellular processes occur, including metabolism, protein synthesis, an d intracellular transport. It serves as a catalyst for chemical reactions. The cytoplasm o fa cell performs every task necessary for cell division, growth, and replication. Diffusio ni moves materials within the cytoplasm Nucleus and Nucleolus The nucleus is a crucial organelle found in eukaryotic cells, serving as the control cente r of the cell. It contains the genetic material (DNA) organized into chromosomes. Then uclear membrane surrounding the cell acts as a barrier, separating the nucleus from ot her cell parts. Within the nucleus, the nucleolus stands out as a distinct region responsi ble for ribosome assembly. It synthesizes ribosomal RNA (FRNA) and combines it with proteins to form ribosomes, essential for protein synthesis. Together, the nucleus and n ucleolus play vital roles in controlling cellular activities, maintaining genetic integrity, a nd regulating gene expression. Cell Organelles Organelles are cell components that have been modified and/or specialized to perform “d rTone or more important functions. Cell organelles are found in both eukaryotic and prok aryotic cells; however, bacterial organelles are more basic and not membrane-bound. A cell contains different kinds of organelles. The cell organelle's structure and function is given below: Cell organelles ‘Structures Function Chromosomes Thread-like structures mad eof DNA and protein Carries genetic informatio n Endoplasmic Reticulum Network of membranous t ubules and sacs; rough ER has ribosomes attached, w hile smooth ER does not Involved in protein and lipi d synthesis, as well as tran sportation of molecules wi thin the cell Golgi Bodies Stack of flattened membra ne-bound sacs (cisternae) with associated vesicles Modifies, sorts, and packa ges proteins and lipids for transportation or secretio a. Ribosomes Made of RNA and protein; can be free in the cytoplas m or attached to the ER. Site of protein synthesis. Mitochondria Double membrane-bound organelle with inner cristae folds; contains mitochondt ial DNA (mtDNA). Generates ATP through cel lular respiration; known as the "powerhouse" of the ce u Chloroplast Double membrane-bound organelles with internal thy lakoid membranes Site of photosynthesis in p lant cells; con tains chlorop hyll for capturing light ener gy. Vacuoles Membrane-bound sacs fill ed with fluid or sap; larger Store water, nutrients, and waste; maintain turgor prein plant cells. ssure in plant cells. Lysosomes Membrane-bound vesicles | contain digestive enzymes containing digestive enzy | for breaking down waste mes materials and foreign inva ders. CELL THEORY Cell theory, a fundamental principle in biology, was initially proposed by German scientis ts Theodor Schwann, Matthias Schleiden, and Rudolf Virchow. It serves asa unifying co cept that applies to all living organisms, describing the basic structural and functional unit of life. This theory laid the foundation for our understanding of biological organizati on. The key principles of cell theory include: All living organisms are composed of one or more cells: This postulate emphasizes tha twhether an organism is unicellular (composed of a single cell) or multicellular (compos ed of many cells), cells are the basic building blocks that form the structure of every livin gentity. The cell is the basic unit of life: Cells are the smallest unit that can perform all life proce sses, such as metabolism, growth, and reproduction. Therefore, the cell is the fundament al unit of both structure and function in living organisms. All cells arise from pre-existing cells: This principle establishes that new cells are produ ced from the division of existing cells. It rejects earlier theories of spontaneous generatio 1, instead stating that the continuity of life is maintained through cellular reproduction As biology advanced, modem revisions of cell theory were developed to account for mor e complex cellular functions. These additional postulates expand upon the original theor yand include Energy flow occurs within cells: All iving cells undergo metabolic processes where ener gy is produced, stored, and utilized to maintain cellular activities. This energy flow is ess ential for sustaining life “d rT_ L Genetic information is passed from one cell to another: The transmission of genetic ma terial, stored in DNA, ensures the continuity of life. During cell division, DNA is replicated and passed on to daughter cells, preserving genetic traits and enabling inheritance. All cells share a similar chemical composition: Despite the diversity of organisms, the c hemical makeup of cells, including molecules like proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, and nu cleic acids, remains largely consistent across species. This similarity underscores the sh ared biochemical processes that drive cellular functions. Functions of a Cell Cells performa variety of crucial functions essential for the survival, growth, and reprodu ction of organisms. Each cell operates as a self-contained unit while contributing to the overall function of the organism. The primary functions of cells can be outlined as follo ws: Provides Support and Structure: © Cells serve as the structural foundation of all living organisms. In multicellular organisms, cells group together to form tissues, providing support and shape t © the organism. For example, the cell wall in plants and the cell membrane in a nimals are vital in maintaining the organism's physical structure. The skin ina nimals consists of multiple layers of cells, while in plants, xylem cells provide structural support to help the plant remain upright. tes Growth through Mitosis: © Growth in organisms is facilitated through the process of mitosis, where a sin gle parent cell divides to produce two genetically identical daughter cells. This process allows the organism to grow by increasing the number of cells. Mitosi $ is a critical part of tissue repair, cellular replacement, and overall growth in m ulticellular organisms. Enables Transport of Substances: © Cells regulate the transport of nutrients, gases, and waste products across thei rt membranes. Nutrients required for metabolic activities enter the cell, and was te products are expelled. This transport can occur through passive mechanism “d rT_ L s, such as diffusion, where molecules like oxygen and carbon dioxide move acros s the cell membrane following a concentration gradient. Alternatively, active tr ansport involves the use of cellular energy to move larger or charged molecule s against the concentration gradient, ensuring cells receive necessary material s for survival Energy Production: © Cells are responsible for producing energy, which is crucial for driving biolagic al processes. In plant cells, energy is produced through photosynthesis, where light energy is converted into chemical energy in the form of glucose. In anima | cells, energy is produced through cellular respiration, where glucose is broken down to release ATP (adenosine triphosphate), the cell’s energy currency. This energy is used to fuel various cellular activities, from growth to movement. Aids in Reproduction © Cells play a central role in reproduction through processes such as mitosis and meiosis. Mitosis allows for asexual reproduction, where daughter cells are gen etically identical to the parent cell. This is important for growth, tissue repair, a nd maintenance of an organism's body. Meiosis, on the other hand, is crucial f or sexual reproduction, leading to the formation of gametes (sperm and egg ce lls). Meiosis results in daughter cells that are genetically different from the par ent cells, contributing to genetic diversity in sexually reproducing organisms.