Composites Part C: Open Access 9 (2022) 100298

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Composites Part C: Open Access

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Multi-functional Composites

A state-of-the-art review on potential applications of natural

fiber-reinforced polymer composite filled with inorganic nanoparticle
Trilokinath Mishra a, #, Paulami Mandal b, #, Arun Kumar Rout a, *, Dibakar Sahoo c, *
a
Department of Production Engineering,Veer Surendra Sai University of Technology, Burla, Sambalpur, 768018
b
Department of physics, Jadavpur University, Kolkata, India
c
School of Physics, Sambalpur University, Jyoti Vihar, Burla, Odisha 768019, India, Fax No: +91-663-2430158

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Natural fibres have recently piqued the interest of researchers due to their low cost, availability, sustainability,
Inorganic filler renewable, and biodegradable properties, which can also be used as reinforcement in polymer composites.
Natural fiber Numerous researches are going on to improve the mechanical and tribological properties of these engineered
Polymer
biocomposites with the filling of the appropriate amount of inorganic nanoparticles like ZrO2, SiO2, CuS, ZnO,
Mechanical property
CuO, and TiO2 into polymer matrices. The composites were made with different weight fractions of nanoparticles
Tribological property
Water absorption property using various moulding techniques, such as hand lay-up, vacuum-assisted resin transfer moulding, pultrusion,
injection moulding, and so on. Before fabrication, the natural fibers undergo different chemical treatments, such
as alkaline, silane, acetylation, or benzoylation, etc. Mechanical tests (tensile, compression, flexural, hardness,
and impact), tribological tests (coefficient of friction and wear rate), and water absorption tests were commonly
performed. The purpose of this review is to discuss the mechanical, falme retardant, thermal, tribological, water
adsorption, and biodegradable properties of the inorganic nanoparticle-filled natural reinforced polymer com­
posite and their applications. Our review reveals that the incorporation of inorganic nanoparticles into a natural
fiber reinforced polymer composite improved mechanical and tribological properties, it is also enhanced thermal
stability and flame retardancy and reduced the water absorption capacity of biocomposites. Inorganic
nanoparticle-filled natural reinforced polymer composite has higher degradability and causes less environmental
pollution and these biocomposites show their utility in construction, packaging, furniture, automotive industries,
and biotechnological fields.

1. Introduction various natural fibers as reinforcement with their potential imple­

mentations in diverse social and industrial areas. These natural
Increasing environmental awareness and social concerns, including fiber-reinforced composites possess average to excellent mechanical and
the current environmental laws and untenable use of petroleum, force physical characteristics [3].
the present world to innovate new environment-friendly components. However, natural fibers have several limitations. Natural fiber
Natural fiber is one among various environment-loving agents. More­ comprises cellulose, hemicelluloses, lignin, pectin, and waxy substances,
over, natural fiber-reinforced polymer composites (NFRPCs) are more responsible for the moisture absorption from the surroundings, thereby
beneficial over synthetic fibers for their low weight, low cost, better forming a weak bond between the fiber and polymer. Furthermore, due
mechanical properties (e.g., tensile modulus and flexural modulus), the to the difference in chemical structures of fibers and polymer matrices,
improved surface finish of molded parts composite, renewable re­ the challenge remains in couplings between natural fiber and polymer.
sources, easy availability [1], flexibility during processing, excellent These are the reasons behind the ineffectual stress transfer during the
biodegradability, and minimal health hazards [1,2]. Most of the current interface of the produced composites. Nanomaterials can solve these
academic and industrial research endeavors are channeled towards problems. It is common to incorporate other elements such as fibers,
seeking environment-friendly biodegradable composites integrating fillers, particles, whiskers, etc., within reinforcements to enhance

* Corresponding Authors.
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (A.K. Rout), [email protected] (D. Sahoo).
#
Both authors have equal contribution

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcomc.2022.100298
Received 13 May 2022; Received in revised form 7 July 2022; Accepted 21 July 2022
Available online 22 July 2022
2666-6820/© 2022 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
T. Mishra et al. Composites Part C: Open Access 9 (2022) 100298

various properties like mechanical/physical properties of the target

composites [4].
Generally, the efficiency of reinforcing fillers in composites is found
to be inversely proportional to the size, whereas directly proportional to
the filler surface area to volume ratio [5]. At this moment, nanoparticles
are emerging as an excellent filler that can effectively upgrade and
modify the mechanical and physical properties of polymer composites
[6,7]. The large surface area of the nanofillers facilitates good interfacial
bonding with the polymer matrix that further uplifts different properties
of the composites [8,9].
Natural fiber-reinforced composites (NFRCs) embedded with nano­
particles are more eco-friendly, with reduced water-absorption capac­
ities and increased mechanical properties, and thus are popularly
implemented in construction industries for partition boards, ceiling
paneling, transportation sectors including automobiles, railway
coaches, aerospace packaging, consumer products, etc [10].
Also, when particular nanomaterials are incorporated in the natural
fibers polymer composites, that may lead to antibacterial, anti-odor
properties, or UV protection, high hydrophobic functionalities [11,12,
13,14,15,16,17]. At present, there has already been a range of new
nanotechnology-based textiles in use in various sectors like sports items,
the beauty industry, space technology, and clothing lines [1]. Fig. 1. Different types of Composite Material.
Natural fiber reinforcements in thermosetting and thermoplastic
composites were researched by Layth Mohammed et al. [1]to see how would provide an overview of the material selection to synthesize
different chemical treatments affected their mechanical, thermal, water upgraded composite materials. Here, in this paper, the benefits of bio-
absorption, flame retardancy, and tribological properties. The re­ based fibers as composite reinforcement along with the diversities of
searchers concluded that chemically treating the natural fiber boosted natural fibers, their resultant properties, and hierarchal structures will
adhesion between the fiber surface and the polymer matrix, which in be discussed. Moreover, it is also the aim of this paper to review briefly
turn improved the physicomechanical and thermochemical properties of the general methods to enhance the interface of these fibers with vari­
the NFRPCs. Nano SiO2 was investigated by Roopesh Kumar Sinha et al. ousinorganic particle-filled polymer matrices. Additionally, a summary
[3] as a filler to improve the dynamic behavior of epoxy composites of the textile technologies for developing various fiber architectures like
reinforced with natural fibers. Natural fiber composites’ mechanical and woven roving, strands, etc., with resulting reinforcing capabilities, along
dynamic behavior has been investigated, both with and without filler, with the method in which natural fiber-reinforced composites can be
and they are compared. They discovered that Nano SiO2 can be processed is presented in this article. Lastly, the current review would
employed as a filler material due to its exceptional qualities, low cost, correlate the processing route, structure, and final composite properties
light weight, and ease of availability. Vijayakumar Pujar et al. [18] to give a complete understanding of the current topic.
studied the effects of primary reinforcements like glass, carbon, and
kevlar, as well as secondary reinforcements like SiC, Si3N4, Al2O3, MoS2, 2. Composites
WS2 TiO2, SiO2, ZrO2, MbO2, ZnS, CaCO3, CaO, MgCO3, Ta/NbC, MgO,
TiC, polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), graphite, and hexagonal boron Composite materials are obtained by combining two or more mate­
nitride on the mechanical and tribological (wear and friction) charac­ rials to attain exclusive structural characteristics. Within composites, the
teristics of polymer-based composites. Along with different particle sizes starting elements preserve their individualities to a certain extent [22].
and volume fractions of secondary reinforcements, the influence of The concept behind the composites is nothing new and is a century-old
primary reinforcements’ shape is also highlighted. Love Kerni et al. [19] trade in human history [23]. The synthetic reinforcements involve car­
investigated the many kinds of natural fibers that may be employed as bon, thermoplastics, alumina, boron, silicon carbide, steel, and silicon
reinforcement in polymer composites using a variety of production nitride in general. Moreover, coconut shells, eggshells, palm kernel
techniques and processing procedures. Then, these composites’ me­ shells, periwinkle, Thaumato coccus daniellii, bagasse, banana peel, and
chanical, tribological, and other characteristics are examined and given yam peel are explored more as natural filler within composites aiming
together with a variety of applications. The current problems and dif­ for successful implementation in different sectors. Usually, matrix and
ficulties with the mechanical and tribological characteristics of filler or reinforcements are two main building blocks in a composite
plant-based natural fiber-reinforced thermoset composites have been (Fig. 1). A matrix is like an adhesive for reinforcements which helps to
discussed by Vijay Chaudhary et al. [20], They discovered that when it bind the filler materials together and transfers the employed load to the
comes to mechanical and tribological qualities, the interfacial adhesion filler elements. Furthermore, it secures the reinforcement in its place and
is the dominant determinant. The wear and frictional properties of prevents the composite from damage to its surrounding.
thermoset composites based on plant fibers can be managed by choosing On the other hand, fillers or reinforcements in a composite are the
the right fillers and orientation for the reinforcement. A unified account loadings bearing components, supplying strength and rigidity to carry
of the study on several bast fibers (banana, flax, hemp, jute, kenaf, and the structural loads. These fillers usually exist in fibrous forms like
ramie) reinforced polymer composites, including the impact of chemical natural fibers or take specific forms like chopped glass and carbon [23,
treatment on their physicomechanical characteristics and their appli­ 24]. Nanomaterials are utilized as secondary reinforcing or filler ele­
cations, was presented by A.V. Kiruthika et al. [21]. ments. These elements, therefore, create a fiber reinforcing phase,
Numerous review publications examined NFRPCs from various an­ which, in turn, produce the composites more advanced by modifying the
gles, but none of them mentioned the impact of inorganic nanoparticles mechanical/physical properties of the target composites.
on the overall effectiveness of NFRPCs. In order to fill this gap, a review Depending upon the nature of the matrices and fillers/re­
of several natural fiber qualities and their applications, including me­ inforcements, composites can be classified into different categories.
chanical, flame retardant, thermal, tribological, water absorption, and There are four types of composites depending on the variety of the re­
biodegradable capabilities, is provided in this work. The present review inforcements. These are fiber-reinforced particulate reinforced,

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Fig. 2. Types of natural fiber.

structural composites, and nanocomposites. In terms of a matrix, the

Table 1
composites are of three types such as metal matrix; ceramic matrix, and
List of largest producer countries of plant fiber[29].
polymer matrix composites [24,25].
Plant Type Worldwide production amount Countries
fibers (103 ton)
3. Natural Fiber
Flax Bast 830 Canada, France, Belgium
Natural fibers are sourced from plants or animals and are not syn­ Hemp Bast 214 China, France,
Philippines
thetic or manmade. Natural fiber such as oil palm, sisal, flax, and jute kenaf Bast 970 India, Bangladesh, USA
from both resources, renewable and nonrenewable, generally used to Ramie Bast 100 China, Brazil,
produce composite materials, gained considerable attention in the last Philippines, India
decades, so far [1]. Jute Bast 2300 India, China, Bangladesh
Abaca Leaf 70 Philippines, Ecuador,
Natural fibers are mainly classified as follows (Fig. 2):
Costa Rica
Pineapple Leaf 74 Philippines, Thailand,
3.1. Animal Fiber Indonesia
Sisal Leaf 378 Tanzania, Brazil
Animal fiber is a natural fiber that is obtained from animals. It is Coir Fruit 100 India, Sri Lanka
Palm Fruit 40 Malaysia, Indonesia
made from different sources of proteins like wool, mohair, silk, alpaca, Cotton Seed 25000 China, India, USA
angora. In general, animal-based fibers such as silk, wool are used as Bamboo Grass 30000 India, China, Indonesia
reinforcements for green composites. The properties like surface Bagasse Grass 75000 Brazil, India, China
toughness, high aspect ratio, flexibility, less hydrophilicity give the
advantage to animal fiber for practical use compared to other natural
other type of natural fiber. Flax, jute, hemp, ramie, and kenaf are the
fibers.
most common plants from where bast fibers are derived. Leaf fibers are
collected from the plant’s leaves, such as abaca, sisal, and pineapple.
3.2. Mineral fiber
Fruit fiber is the fibers obtained from the plant’s fruit, for example, fiber
Fiber or slightly altered fiber derived from minerals exists in mineral
fibers. They can be classified into the following classes: asbestos,
serpentine, and anthophyllite amphiboles. There are six naturally
occurring mineral fibers collectively known as Asbestos. However, these
fibers lead to the diseases like lung fibrosis, pleural disease, lung cancer,
mesothelioma,etc [26]. Due to these disadvantages, this mineral-based
fiber is rarely used.

3.3. Plant fiber

The popularly explored natural fiber is a plant fiber, and it is also a

very common reinforcement. There are six primary forms of plant fibers:
seed fiber, bast fiber, leaf fiber, fruit fiber, straw fiber, etc. Seed fibers
are the fibers that are accumulated from the seeds, like coir kapok and
cotton. Bast fibers are known as skin fibers. It is acquired from the outer
cell layers of the stems. This fiber has more tensile strength than any Fig. 3. Diagram of natural plant cell walls [32].

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Table 2 leading to the terrible interfacial adhesion ability between the fiber and
The chemical composition of plant fiber [30,34]. polymer matrix when used to form a composite [48]. Fibers are treated
Plant Cellulose(wt Hemicellulose Lignin(wt Pectic Wax with 5-6 percent sodium hydroxide (NaOH) for a limited period to boost
fibres %) (wt%) %) (wt%) interfacial adhesion strength between fibers and polymer matrix. It will
Flax 71 18.6-20.6 2.2 2.3 1.7 increase the roughness of the skin, decrease the content of cellulose
Hemp 70.2–74.4 17.9–22.4 3.7–5.7 0.9 0.8 exposed on the fiber surface, and remove lignin, hemicellulose, wax, and
kenaf 31–39 21.5 15–19 3–5 - oils [49]. There are many other cases where alkaline treatment affects
Ramie 68.6–76.2 13.1–16.7 0.6–0.7 1.9 0.3 significantly the tensile strength of thedifferent composites [56,57,58].
Jute 61–71.5 13.6–20.4 12–13 0.2 0.5
Abaca 56–63 20–25 7-9 1 3
Hameem et al. [50] examined the effect of water absorption on the
Pineapple 70–82 - 5–12 1.1 - tensile and flexural properties of reinforced polyester composite treated
Sisal 67–78 10–14.2 8–11 10 2 and untreated Napier Grass. They reported degradation of the properties
Coir 36–43 0.15–0.25 41–45 3–4 - of all the specimens upon immersing in water. However, untreated
Palm 65 29 - - -
composites of Napier grass fiber displayed higher water absorption,
Cotton 82.7 5.7 - 0-1 0.6
Bamboo 26–43 30 21-31 - - resulting in decreased tensile strength and flexural strength compared to
Bagasse 55.2 16.8 25.3 - - treated composites of Napier grass fiber.

6. Natural Fiber Reinforced Polymer Composites (NFRPCs)

coconut (coir). Stalk fiber is the fibers obtained from the plant’s stalks.
For instance, straws of wheat, corn, barley, and various bamboo and Natural fiber polymer composites (NFRPC) are made of a polymer
grass plants are stalk fibers. Tree wooden is also such fiber [27]. On the matrix implanted within high-strength natural fibers [55]. A matrix is a
other hand, plant fibers are better replacements for synthetic fibers [28]. binder that holds the fiber together and transfers stress between them. It
Natural fibers are of different types based on their source of origin from also protects the fiber from environmental and mechanical damage. The
the plant (Table 1). Because of their biodegradable and eco-friendly chemical compositions of these matrices vary, as do their reactivity with
properties, the usage of plant/natural fibers has been increased enor­ the surface molecules of composite fibers. However, generally, polymers
mously. Thus, natural fibers have been more preferred than synthetic may be subdivided into thermoplastics and thermosets. Among these
fibers. They are also desirable for their high strength, stiffness, and two groups, the structure of thermoset polymer enables it with high
renewablecharacters[28]. flexibility (effective in customizing target characteristics), strength, and
modulus [56,57]. Nonetheless, thermoplastics are extensively utilized
4. Composition of natural fiber for bio fibers as polyethylene [58], polypropylene (PP), and polyvinyl­
chloride (PVC), whereas phenolic, polyester, and epoxy resins are ex­
Cellulose (alpha-cellulose), hemicellulose, lignin, pectin, and waxes amples of thermosets [55] (Table 5 and 6). So far, all of the
are the principal components of natural fibers [30]. Fig. 3 shows the investigations on different NFRPCs indicate that the characteristics of
schematic representation of the natural plant cell wall [31]. NFRPCs vary depending upon the nature of fibers, origins, and moisture
The cell walls of a hollow tube consist of four distinct layers; a pri­ conditions. Nonetheless, mechanical structures, microfibrillar angle
mary cell wall, three secondary cellular partitions, and a lumen; which is [59], defects [60], cell dimensions [61], physical nature [57], chemical
an open channel inside the center of the microfibril. The cell walls are nature, and also the interaction of a fiber with the matrix [62] determine
mainly made of cellulose, hemicelluloses, and lignin. the effectiveness of an NFRPC. However, as discussed earlier, NFRPCs
The properties of regular strands of the fiber can differ depending on have their drawbacks. Due to the chemically different structures, the
the source, age, and isolating strategy [33]. The chemical composition of fabrication of the natural fiber within the polymer matrix faces chal­
some plant fiber is shown below in Table 2. lenges resulting in inefficient exchange of stress to the interface of the
composites. Therefore, attainment of excellent interface characteristics
5. Chemical treatment of natural fiber demands modifications in the chemical processing of the natural fiber,
meaning the reagent functional groups owing to the capability to
The hydrophilic natural fiber is incompatible with the hydrophobic interact with the fiber compositions at the time of chemical treatments
matrix of polymers as the hydrophilic aspect of the cellulosic fiber [39] can change the structure of the fibers [63]. For instance, natural fibers
affects the fiber-matrix interface. The pre-treatment of natural fibers with the hydroxyl group are hydrophilic. Therefore, a weak interfacial
makes it possible to change chemically or clean the fiber surface [40]. bonding binds the hydrophilic natural fiber and hydrophobic polymer
The composite strength of natural fiber, aging, and adhesion of the fiber matrices, making the composites with poor mechanical and physical
matrix [41] is enhanced by several procedures. A well-engineered properties [64]. However, the hydrophilicity of the natural fiber [65]
interface not only increases the vitality of the composites; it also offers and the fiber loading can control the characteristics of the composites
structural equilibrium [42,43,44,45,46]. One can control the charac­ [66,67]. A hike in fiber content may lift the tensile properties of the
teristics and efficiency of a composite by changing the chemical struc­ composites [64]. Other parameters at the processing time also affect the
ture of the fiber-matrix interfaces. Specific interfacial properties properties and surface characteristics of the composites [55]. Moreover,
influence transferring the load from the matrix to the fiber, which helps the chemical ingredients also determine the behavior of the natural fiber
to minimize the absorption of stress and enhances universal mechanical composites [57]. However, numerous researches have explored the
properties. Fiber surfaces are adjusted with different chemical treat­ suitability, competitiveness, and capabilities of natural fibers within
ments to increase the efficacy of the interfacial bonding obstacle to the polymeric matrices [58,64,68,69,70] with an extra focus in modifying
interlocking with the matrix (Table 4). Alkaline treatment on natural the surface of the target fiber and processing techniques [57;64,71,72]
fiber is on of the maximum used chemical treatments for natural fiber. It to boost the fiber/polymer compatibility. Some studies concentrated on
is used to strengthen thermoplastics and thermoset [52], enhance fiber discovering different applications of a particular natural fiber with the
wetting, increase surface roughness; thereby enhancing mechanical comparative exploration of its mechanical properties [59,73].
interlocking,increasethe amount of cellulose exposed on the
fiber-surface, thereby increasing the number of potential reactionsites 6.1. NFRPCs with inorganic nano fillers
[47].
Even though natural fibers have many benefits, their hydrophilic A significant part of the composites is fillers. These fillers can be
nature allows them to absorb excessive moisture from the environment, natural or artificial and are available as a particle, fragment, fiber, sheet,

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and whisker forms. For thousands of years, several lignocellulosic fibers the component from the outside air (PVA). The molding technique of the
have been exploited as fillers [76,77]. At present, nano-fillers are vacuum bag is also achieved with a hand layout technique. [91,92].
emerging as a promising candidate to upgrade different properties and VARTM is a modern mounting method to mount preformed fibers on a
mechanical behaviors of NFRPCs [78]. When a polymeric matrix with a mold by inserting a perforated tube between vacuum bags and a resin
large surface reduces to a smaller area (~nm) gives rise to exclusive tub. Vacuum force aids the resin in being sucked over the fibers through
flexible functionalities, better mechanical strength (tensile strength and the perforated tubes to strengthen the laminate structure. This process
stiffness) in comparison to the bulk of pure materials [79]. In recent removes excess air from the composites, making them suitable for
years researchers have been more prone to use nanomaterials in com­ large-scale projects like ship hulls and wind turbine blades [93,94].
posite preparation because it can improve the material properties due to Natural fibers are treated on the surface of textile composites to increase
the two aspects; a large relative surface area and a new quantum effect. their efficiency. The VARTM process increased tensile strength by 19.7%
It enhanced material properties like chemical reactivity, heat resistance, using alkali-treated flax-reinforced epoxy acrylate composite resin [95].
strength, optical, electrical & magnetic behavior. Nanomaterials exist in They deliver high efficiency for fast cycle times, automation, and
single-stage or multi-stage. The single nano-stage materials are typically dimensional stability, making them suitable for the automotive industry
one dimension with particle sizes less than 100 nm. Single-phase [96,97,98.
nanomaterials can also be bulk, including nanoparticle combination, In the pultrusion process, continuous fiber strands are drawn through
cluster, or agglomerate. In this situation, agglomeration prevents the resin bath and consolidated in the heated die. It is a process for
obtaining the desired properties. Hence, it is needful to separate and manufacturing composites with a constant cross-section and a longer
disperse the aggregated nanoparticles to achieve better properties and length; it allows for high levels of automation and lower production
performance. Multiphase nanocomposites are engineered by adding costs [[99],100,101].
nanomaterial into a matrix. The basis of such composites is the matrix of Injection molding can generate composite parts in a short period and
polymers [80]. Nanoparticle embedded NFRPCs behave very well at a with a high degree of precision.
high temperature, without altering the processing conditions and

melting temperature [81]. Thermoset polymers become fragile due to Schematic diagram of VARTM method
crystallization. However, this issue can be eliminated by adding bio fi­
bers and nanofillers (nano TiO2, SiO2, Carbon Nanotube, ZnO, and 7. Properties of NFRPCs
Graphene Oxides) [82]. Moreover, the grafting of nanofiller enhances
the density of composites, producing hardness in NBCs. Nowadays, 7.1. Mechanical Properties of NFRPCs
several investigations are running on the filler applications of various
nanoparticles in NFRPCs [83,84,85,86]. A constant and extensive amount of researches are involved in the
The range of potential processing techniques has been designed with natural fibers sector to improve their mechanical properties. Among
the help of several polymeric agents in the matrixes via reinforcement many options, the polymers have become a very effective and easy
with different clays for attaining functional properties, which are dis­ choice (Table 8) in updating the natural fibers for a range of applications
cussed in detail in the following section [87]. [68,112,113]. However, orientation [65],strength [64], physical prop­
erties[114], interfacial adhesion property [115]moisture absorption
[116], impurities [117], volume fraction [118]of fibers, among many
6.2. Fabrication process
other properties, can control the efficiency or performance quality of the
natural fiber composites. Furthermore, it has been reported [35,61;119],
There are mainly two fabrication methods for composite: (1)Open
that the effectiveness of the mechanical properties of NEPCs relies both
molding method, (2) Close molding method (Table 7). In the open
on different aspects. They are (1) the character of the fiber, (2) the
molding method, reinforcement, matrix, and gel coat all are exposed to
matrix interface, and (3) the stress transferring to the fiber from the
the atmosphere, whereas in the closed molding method, all the processes
matrix. Table 3. shows the mechanical properties for common types of
are carried out in a two-part mold set or vacuum bag. The most well-
natural fiber in the world [120]. Numerous reviews have been con­
known and widely used composite production method for open mold
ducted on the various surface treatments for attaining a more efficient
is hand lay-up. [88,89,90]. Vacuum bag molding employs a lightweight
and updated version of composite implementations [121,122,123].
film made of polyethylene nylon or polyvinyl alcohol to enclose and seal

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Table 3
Comparative properties of natural fibers with Synthetic fibers.
Plant Density (g/ Tensile strength Young’s modulus Specific strength (GPa/g/ Specific modulus (GPa/g/ Elongation At break Refs
fibers cm3) (MPa) (GPa) cm3) cm3) (%)

Flax 1.50 345-1100 27.6 0.2-0.7 18.4 2.7-3.2 [35]

Hemp 1.14 690 30-60 0.6 26.3-52.6 1.6 [35]
Cotton 1.5–1.6 287–800 5.5–12.6 0.2–0.5 3.7–7.8 7.0–8.0 [36]
Jute 1.3–1.4 393–773 13–26.5 0.3–0.5 10–18.3 1.16–1.5 [36]
Ramie 1.50 400–938 61.4–128 0.3–0.6 40.9–85.3 1.2-3.8 [37]
Sisal 1.45 468–640 9.4–22.0 0.3–0.4 6.4–15.2 3–7 [37]
E-glass 2.5 2000–3500 70 0.8-1.4 28 2.5 [38]
S-glass 2.5 4570 86 1.8 34.4 2.8 [38]
Aramid 1.4 3000–3150 63-67 2.1-2.2 45-74.8 3.3-3.7 [38]

Table 4
Alkali treatment on different plant fiber.
Fibre matrix composites Applied treatment methods Results on mechanical References

Flax–epoxy Alkali treatment With the elimination of pectin, improved tensile strength, and modulus [51]
Sisal–polyester 0.5%, 1%, 2%, 4%, 10% NaOH Maximum tensile strength properties were recorded for 4 percent alkali therapy [51]
treatment at room temperature
Hemp non-woven mat with 0.16% NaOH for 48 h Compared to the untreated fiber composites, tensile strength was increased by 30 [52]
euphorbia resin percent, and the sheer strength properties were found to be doubled.
Jute–vinylester 5% NaOH for 4, 6 and 8 h The 4 h alkali-treated composite improved flexural strength by 20 percent and 19 [53]
percent. and interlaminar sheer strength properties
Coir–polyester 5% NaOH treatment for 72 h Concerning the untreated fiber composites, flexural and impact strength were increased [54]
by 40 percent.

Table 5
Some main characteristics of thermoplastic matrix [74].
Thermoplastic Density (g/cm3) Tensile modulus (GPa) Tensile strength (Mpa) Compression strength (Mpa)

Polyester 1.0–1.5 2.0–4.5 40–90 90–250

Epoxy 1.1–1.6 3.0–6.0 28–100 100–200
Vinyl ester 1.2–1.4 3.1–3.8 69–86 86
Phenolic 1.29 2.8–4.8 35–62 210–360

Table 6
Some main characteristics of thermoplastics matrix materials [75].
Thermoplastics Density (g/cm3) Tensile modulus (GPa) Tensile strength (Mpa) Melting temperature (◦ C)

Polypropylene (PP) 0.90–0.91 1.1–1.6 20–40 175

Polyethylene (PE) 0.91–0.95 0.3–0.5 25–45 115
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) 1.38 3.0 53 212
Polystyrene (PS) 1.04–1.05 2.5–3.5 35–60 240
High density PP 0.94–0.97 0.5–1.1 30–40 137

Table 7
Matrix material reinforced with some plant fibers with their applications and fabrication method.
Plant Matrix material Fabrication method Application References
fibers

Flax PP, polyester, epoxy RTM, Spray/hand lay-up, vacuum infusion Structural, textile [102]
[103]
Hemp PE, PP, PU RTM, compression molding Furniture, automotive [104]
Kenaf PLA, PP, epoxy Compression molding, pultrusion Tooling, bearings automotive parts. [105]
resin
Ramie PP, Polyolefin, PLA Extrusion with injection molding Bullet proof vests, socket prosthesis, civil. [106]
[107]
Jute Polyester, PP Hand lay-up, compression/ injection Ropes, roofing, door panels [108]
molding [109]
Sisal PP, PS, epoxy resin Hand lay-up, compression molding Automobile body parts, roofing sheets [109]
Coir PP, epoxy resin, PE Extrusion, injection molding Automobile structural components, building boards, roofing sheets, insulation [110]
boards [111]

Many chemical treatments are available involving silane [124], alkali fiber/matrix interfacial bonding and stress transferability of the natural
[125], alkaline [126], acrylation [51], benzoylation [127], maleated fiber composites. Also, the treatments with ethylenediaminetetraacetic
coupling agents [128], permanganate [129], acrylonitrile and acetyla­ acid (EDTA), NaOH, polyethyleneimine (PEI), CaCl2, and Ca(OH)2[136]
tion grafting [130], stearic acid [131], peroxide [132], isocyanate alter the mechanical properties of the composite materials considerably
[133], triazine [134], fatty acid derivate (oleoyl chloride), sodium [119]. It has been observed that the fracture property and mechanical
chloride, and fungal [135]. These treatments help to increase properties of NFPCs are dependent on the properties of fundamental

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T. Mishra et al. Composites Part C: Open Access 9 (2022) 100298

Table 8
Mechanical property of natural fiber reinforced polymer composite filled with inorganic nano particle.
Matrix Fiber Nanofiller Improvement in Mechanical properties Reference
used

Epoxy Glass fiber Go Flexural modulus increased by 19% & Flexural strength by 20% as compared to neat composite [178]
Epoxy Carbon Go ILSS property, flexural strength & modulus of the epoxy composite increased by 47%, 25%, and 28% as compared to [177]
fiber neat epoxy by adding GO filler.
Polypropylene Rice Husk 3% Tio2 Stiffness of PP/RH/TiO2 composite increased from 2100 Mpa to more than 3600 Mpa. The tensile property also [186]
fiber improved.
Polymer Glass fiber 1 wt% ZnO Tensile strength, Modulus, and bending resistance composite improved. [110]
Polyester Kenaf fiber 12.5% ZnO Flexural strength increased by 121 % and tensile strength by 38 %. [187]
Resin Carbon TiO2 Flexural strength of the composite is improved by 73.9% were as tensile strength improved by 84.3%. [188]
fiber
Epoxy Glass fiber ZnO ZnO harms flexural strength and tensile strength while having a positive impact on impact strength [181]
Polyester Glass fiber ZnO Flexural strength of 3 wt percent ZnO-filled GFRP composite was substantially improved up to 62.12 percent [189]
compared to unfilled composite. Hardness impact strength also improved by increasing ZnO loading.
Epoxy Jute SiC The tensile strength of the filled jute/epoxy composite increased to 18-24 percent and the sheer module increased to [190]
21wt percent compressive strength by 28-31 percent and the energy absorption ability and impact strength by 37
and 15 percent.

components and inter-phase. Venkateshwaran et al. [137] investigated fibers are better than the untreated fibers. Libo Yan et al., [144]revealed
the alkali (NaOH) treatments on the mechanical properties of bana­ that 5 wt. % NaOH treatment on the Luffa fibers uplifted the tensile
na/epoxy composite by varying the concentrations (0.5%, 1%, 2%, 5%, strength, flexural strength, and their corresponding modulus signifi­
10%, 15%, and 20%) among which 1% NaOH treated fiber-reinforced cantly than the untreated ones.
composites show better results. Although, with the presence of
increasing NaOH, the surface of the fiber gets damaged and thus even­ 7.1.1. Mechanical Properties of NFRPCs with inorganic nanofillers
tually causes a downfall in its mechanical properties. John et al. [138] Another technique that has been proved to be effective in increasing
studied elaborately the change in the mechanical properties and be­ the mechanical properties of natural fibers and natural fiber-reinforced
haviors of sisal-oil palm hybrid fiber reinforced natural rubber com­ composites is, as discussed above, the inclusion of filler or reinforcement
posites upon a variety of chemical treatment such as an augmentation in elements into the matrix [145,146]. Many researchers have been
the torque values resulting larger crosslinking, or observation of tensile working tirelessly to boost different mechanical properties of various
strength hike in the alkali (maximum hike reach 4% NaOH concentra­ natural fiber composites of interest by incorporating various filler
tion) treated composites’ than that of untreated ones. Chemical treat­ components [64,65,119]. Processing characteristics, stiffness, and
ment with 4% NaOH ensures a strong interface in the target composites strength of the polymer matrix composites are improved by incorpo­
by providing greater adhesion within rubber and fiber, shunning the rating particulate filler elements with polymers and are ready to be
solvent interference. Van de Weyenberg et al. [139]revealed the effect of explored in extensive industrial and structural applications [147,148.
flax processing parameters like transverse strength, transverse modulus, However, SiO2 [149], Al2O3 [150], graphite (Hulugappa, Achutha and
longitudinal properties (both modulus and strength), and the chemical Suresha 2016; Shalwan and Yousif 2014), TiO2 [151], fly ash[152],
treatment on the mechanical properties of flax fiber-reinforced epoxy ZnO, and graphene [153] are the names of the few inorganic particulate
composites. A similar investigation was carried out on the fiber of rub­ fillers which have been frequently used to modify the matrix of the
berwood with laccase enzymes, EFB fibers, etc., in detail [140,141]. polymer composites. Swain et al. [150] added Al2O3 to the target
Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene (ABS) with the coating of oil palm composites as a filler which enhances the mechanical properties and
empty fruit bunch fibers was utilized to upgrade the mechanical and interlaminar sheer strength of the target composites. Nikmatin et al.
physical properties of the fiber. The coating ensures improvement in the [146] noticed an improvement in the surface morphology and hardness
tensile strength and elasticity modulus of the OPEFB fibers. Also, by of the composites than the synthetic fibers with the 5 wt.% rattan fillers.
increasing the surface area within fiber and soil, this coating procedure Well dispersed nanoparticles within the matrix upgraded the
uplifts the sheer strengths of the fiber-reinforced soils [142]. fiber-matrix interfacial properties and decreased the crack propagation
Cai et al. [143] found that under the treatment of 5% NaOH, the in polymer composites [151]. An increment in the nanoparticles display
tensile strength, Young’s modulus, and interfacial sheer strength of the a remarkable impact on the curing process and glass transient

80 Tensile Strength 72.5

Without inorganic filler With inorganic filler
Tensile Strength (MPa)

70
60 48
50 38.82
40 34
28.6 25
30 15.31
20 12.22
6.48 6.427
10
0
0 wt% PbO, 1.25 0 wt% Graphene, 0 wt% Silica, 2 0 wt% SiC, 10 0 wt% SiO2, 5
wt% PbO 2wt% Graphene wt% Silica wt% SiC wt% SiO2
Luffa fiber epoxy Luffa fiber epoxy Sisal and hemp Sisal fiber Bagasse fiber
composite composite fiber epoxy Polyester Polyethylene
composite composite composite
Composites

Fig. 4. Effect of inorganic particles on Tensile strength of composite [156,191,192,193,194.

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T. Mishra et al. Composites Part C: Open Access 9 (2022) 100298

120 Flexural Strength

107.176

Flexural Strength (MPa)

Without inorganic filler With inorganic filler 93.214
100
80 69.51
63.56
56.72 53.5
60 45.62
42.44 38
40 25.48
20
0
0 wt% PbO, 1.25 0 wt% Graphene, 0 wt% Silica, 2 wt% 0 wt% SiO2, 5 wt% 0 vol% B4C, 5vol%
wt% PbO 2wt% Graphene Silica SiO2 B4C
Luffa fiber epoxy Luffa fiber epoxy Sisal and hemp Bagasse fiber Ramie and Areca
composite composite fiber epoxy Polyethylene fiber epoxy
composite composite composite
Composites

Fig. 5. Effect of inorganic particles on Flexural strength of composite [156,191,192,193,194].

Impact Strength
Without inorganic filler With inorganic filler
35 30
Impact Strength (J)

30
25
18
20 14.25
15
10 7.09 7.51 7.6
5 2.72 4.35 0.8 2.5
0
0 wt% PbO, 1.25 0 wt% Graphene, 0 wt% Silica, 2 wt% 0 wt% SiO2, 5 wt% 0 vol% B4C, 5vol%
wt% PbO 4wt% Graphene Silica SiO2 B4C
Luffa fiber epoxy Luffa fiber epoxy Sisal and hemp Bagasse fiber Ramie and Areca
composite composite fiber epoxy Polyethylene fiber epoxy
composite composite composite
Composites

Fig. 6. Effect of inorganic particles on Impact strength of composite [156,191,192,193,194].

temperature of polymer composites [149]. Özdemir et al. [154] inves­ in tensile strength of rubber composites and Kong et al. [161]synthe­
tigated the effect of nano lead oxide as a filler on the synthetic elastomer, sized NR composites with graphene oxide (GO) as filler component.
Ethylene Propylene Diene monomer polymer (EPDM), and found a rise Zhou et al. [162]upgraded the crack resistance of NR/solution poly­
in thermal, mechanical, and radiation properties of the target polymer merized butadiene styrene rubber (SSBR) composites with a GEs filler
matrix composites. Lead oxide fillers also alter several other valuable network. Further, GEs and CNTs as fillers are utilized to harden natural
properties, like radiation shielding, thermal, structural, dielectric, and rubber (NR) [159]. However, these options are not cost-effective and
good compatibility with other materials [155] of natural fiber com­ hence, not promising for industrial applications. To overcome this
posites by changing the matrix. K. G. Ashok et al. further confirmed that problem nowadays one-dimensional nano-carbon filler (CNF), helical
adding nanofiller lead oxide improved the mechanical strength of the carbon nanofibers (HCNFs) are emerging as potential reinforcement
luffa natural composite [156]. Recently, novel nano reinforcing carbon materials [163]. Yong Zhong Jin et.al [164] used nano SiO2 modified
fillers like carbon nanotubes (CNTs) and graphenes (GEs) have been HCNFs fillers to reinforce NR composites at a low loading level. That
explored as promising alternatives to boost the mechanical features of enhanced the mechanical properties like modulus at 300% strain, tensile
rubbers [157,158]. CNTs and carbon black (CB) upgrade the mechanical strength, elongation at break, shore hardness, abrasion, wet skid resis­
properties, tear strength and thermal conductivity of natural rubber tance, and rolling resistance and lowered the abrasion volume of NR
(NR)/butadiene rubber (BR) composites [159]. Pulling CNTs out of the composites from 0.386 to 0.18 cm3, the storage modulus of 6.5 phr of the
matrix of polymer composites is the major fracture mode [160]. Loading composites at 0◦ C and 60◦ C by 16.8 and 29.6%, respectively than
of CNTs and CNTs/SiO2 fillers in large amounts ensured a significant rise N330/NR. Conducting polymer composites (CPCs) are another group of

Table 9
Tribological property of natural fiber reinforced polymer composite filled with inorganic nanoparticles.
Composite Material Tribometer Normal Load Sliding Velocity(m/ WR COF(µ) Reference
(N) s)

Polyamide filled jute fiber+ 3.5% ZnO Pin on Disk 2 0.2970 0.64999(mm3/Nm) 0.1044 [234]
PTFE + 15% ZnO Pin on Disk 200 0.431 2.02(mm3/Nm) 0.193 [229]
Hybrid glass/PTFE + 4 % ZnO Pin on Disk 196 0.26 3.21(10–14 m3/N/m) 0.065 [230]
Bamboo/Epoxy Pin-on Disk 30 1.7–3.96 2.9 *10–5mm3/Nm (3.96 m/ 0.55(2.83m/s) [235]
s)
Polyester Fabric/Unsaturated Cylinder-on Plate 50–200 0.3–1.2 0.8*10– 4mm3/Nm(50N) 0.1(200N, 0.6m/ [236]
Polyester Testing s)

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T. Mishra et al. Composites Part C: Open Access 9 (2022) 100298

Fig. 7. Peak heat release rate (PHRR) [130,162,175,184].

Table 10
Effect of inorganic particle on tribological property of NFRPCs.
Fiber material Matrix Inorganic Filler Fabrication Properties checked Outcome Ref.
material process

Short Eulaliopsis binata Epoxy resin - hand lay-up Fiber loading’s impact on erosion Composite with 30% FL shows the least [237]
fiber (11 mm length) technique wear amount of erosion wear.
Sisal fiber randomly Unsaturated Red mud (0.5 to Compression L27 OA is used to study the impact Erosion is affected by fiber orientation and [238]
oriented mat polyester 1.5 lm) molding of fiber loading and filler filler loading. At 30 IA, the highest erosion
process concentration on erosion wear. was recorded.
Sisal fibers Treated with Epoxy resin - hand lay-up Impact of Fiber treatment and PLA The wear resistance is considerably [239]
NaHCO3 for 96 hrs and technique coating on sisal fiber composite. increased by fiber treatment and coating.
then coated with Poly
lactic acid (PLA)
Sugarcane bagasse fiber Epoxy resin hand lay-up Fiber loading’s impact on erosion Fiber loading directly affects the erosion [240]
Treated with NaOH technique wear rate.
solution for 1 hr
Jute fiber Fiber loading Unsaturated Copper slag 10 wt Compression Effect of two types of treatment: The inclusion of copper slag improves the [241]
40% Treated with polyester % molding sodium hydroxide (NT) and erosion prevention caused by excellent
NaOH and Ca(OH)2 for calcium hydroxide (CT) were interfacial bonding. Treatment of the fiber
8 hrs compared with untreated fiber on protected it from harm.
erosion behavior
Bamboo Fiber (treatment Epoxy resin 3, 6, 9 wt% hand lay-up Impact of fiber and filler loading The rate of erosion in the bamboo-epoxy [242]
is done with 5% NaOH Cenosphere technique on erosion wear composite is reduced with the inclusion of
solution for 30 min) (60–94 lm) cenosphere filler.
Fiber loading:
18,28,33, 43 wt%
bamboo fiber mats E glass Epoxy resin Zirconia (ZrO2) hand layup Impact of ceramic filler on With 6 weight percent ZrO2, the GBBG [243]
fiber and titania (TiO2) technique Bamboo-Glass Hybrid composite laminate composite has improved erosion
(size: 200 lm) wear characteristics.
Short coir fiber Fiber Epoxy resin Al2O3 (80–100 hand lay-up erosion effects of fiber and filler The variables that have the most influence [244]
length: 3 mm, 6 mm, 9 lm) 10 wt% technique loading are impingement angle and velocity. At a
mm, 12 mm and 15 mm 75-degree angle, the filled composite’s
peak erosion is discovered and exhibits
semi-brittle behavior.
Sisal and hemp fiber Epoxy resin SiC (0 to 4wt%) hand lay-up Filler’s impact on wear properties Higher wear resistance was obtained using [192]
technique 2 wt.% silica nanoparticles, a normal load
of 10 N, a sliding speed of 1.5 m/s, and a
sliding distance of 500 m.
glass-caryota fiber Epoxy resin Sic (0 to 1 vol%) hand lay-up Filler’s impact on wear properties According to the wear characteristics, the [245]
and Nanoclay (0 technique inclusion of silicon carbide results in a
to 2 vol%) decreased specific wear rate of 0.024
mm3/Nm.
jute fiber Epoxy resin TiO2 hand lay-up Effect of fiber orientation on the When TiO2 filler is added, the wear rate [246]
technique effectiveness of erosive wear marginally rises in 45◦ and 60◦ fiber
orientations but somewhat decreases in
90◦ fiber orientation, meaning that the
erosion rate of the composite is
comparatively highest at 60◦ angle of
impingement at all compositions.

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T. Mishra et al. Composites Part C: Open Access 9 (2022) 100298

polymer composites that are rapidly drawing great interest from the nanocomposites are increased [175]. Furthermore, exchanging of 20
electronics industry for their broad-range electrical conductivity and wt.% graphene sheets with 17.5 wt.% graphene and 2.5 wt.% carbon
ease of fabrication. CPCs are consist of conductive fillers dispersed in the nanotubes cause a small increment in the hardness.
polymer matrices[165]. There are significant improvements and guidelines for the reinforced
Polymer/graphene conducting nanocomposites are employed in composite ZnO-filled natural fibers, which improves their mechanical
sensors, solar cells, lithium-ion batteries, super-capacitors, [166]elec­ properties. In this regard, many pieces of research have been reported
tromagnetic interference (EMI) shielding, antistatic, and electrostatic [87]. Ricardo Baptista et al. [176]studied the effect on the mechanical
solutions [167,168]. Polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) is another excellent properties of epoxy resin and carbon fiber reinforced epoxy composites
biodegradable polymer [169] that coordinates with nano-fillers and of the consolidation of various measures of graphite filler. The outcomes
stabilizes them at a nanoscale level [170]. Moreover, hydrophilicity and from graphite-filled epoxy resin show that 7.5, 10, and 11.5 wt. %
OH groups of natural fibers facilitate them in making biocompatible graphite brings about the best parity of mechanical (modulus, quality,
composites with PVA [171]. It has been reported that the ball-milled jute strain) properties. Also, the consolidation of graphite as a matrix filler in
fibers incorporated in PVA films upgrade their thermal stability and carbon fiber reinforced epoxy upgrades the mechanical properties.
mechanical properties [172]. Das et al. [173] reported that when jute Lokasani Bhanuprakash et al. [177] examined the mechanical properties
microfibrils and nanofibrils filled the Starch/PVA matrix, they increased of graphene oxide-covered carbon fiber/epoxy hybrid composites. They
the mechanical properties of the matrix. Joseph et al. [174] reported a found after examination that graphene oxide-covered carbon filaments
higher storage modulus of hybrid composites compiled with jute fibers have better interlaminar sheer quality and flexural quality than hybrid
than PVA/20wt.%MLG composite, which is familiar with the result carbon fiber composite rEGO and hybrid carbon fiber composite TrGO.
found by Baheti et al. [155]. At 20 wt.% jute loading, interfacial inter­ Mode I fracture properties have improved after coating and significantly
action in the composite, damping properties, hardness of jute-filled improved electrical conductivity by the thickness of thermally reduced

Fig. 8. Limiting oxygen index (LOI) [153,162,170,172,198].

Fig. 9. Mechanism of moisture absorption in natural fibers.

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T. Mishra et al. Composites Part C: Open Access 9 (2022) 100298

Fig. 10. Water absorption behavior [151,156,256,265,266].

coated GOs and rEGOs coated CF composites. Haroon Mahmood et al. composite modulus strength but with lower tensile strength and tear
[178] investigated the mechanical properties of three composite mate­ strength. J. Sudeepan et al. [180] studied on mechanical properties of
rials, i.e., uncoated glass-epoxy composite, glass epoxy composite with ABS/ZnO polymer composite. After their investigation, they found that
graphene-coated fibers, and glass epoxy composite with reduced with the addition of ZnO filler in ABS polymer, the tensile and flexural
graphene-coated fibers. After analysis, they discovered that the moduli increase with an increase in filler content of up to 20 wt %, an
fiber-matrix interfacial shear strength (measured by a single fragmen­ increase in the tensile and flexural strength by up to 15 wt % which
tation test) was more for glass-epoxy composites coated with graphene further begin to decrease. The micro-hardness test indicates that the
and glass epoxy composite coated with reduced graphene fibers than hardness value increases with an increase in the quality of the filler.
that of the uncoated glass epoxy composite. After analysis, they found Sridhar Tripperudrappa et al. [181] investigated the effect of incorpo­
that composites made of coated fibers had better mechanical properties ration of ZnO nanoparticles in varied weight % (1 to 5 wt%) into glass
than uncoated composite fibers. [87]Maya et al. [179]studied the effects fiber reinforced epoxy composite. They found that ZnO nanoparticles
of fiber surface concentration and alteration of sisal/oil palm hybrid decrease the flexure strength of GFRP epoxy composite as the material
fiber-reinforced rubber compounds. The hybrid composite made from becomes more brittle. The impact electricity of the GFRP epoxy com­
untreated sisal and oil palm fibers, cut to different lengths of fibers. The posite increases with the nano ZnO particle (loading up to 2 wt %). It
natural rubber is reinforced, and the increased fiber density improved happens for their uniform distribution and progressed wetting in the

Fig. 11. Application of natural fiber reinforced polymer composite.

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T. Mishra et al. Composites Part C: Open Access 9 (2022) 100298

matrix. Also, ZnO nanoparticles into GFRP epoxy composite reduce polyphosphate (APP) and phytic acid-modified layered double hydrox­
tensile strength for the material’s newly found brittleness. Modification ide (Ph-LDH) for WPCs. They reported that the incorporation of Ph-LDH
with the nano TiO2 enhanced the tensile strength, impact strength, and successfully reduced the smoke production and the total discharge of
flexural strength of the epoxy resin [151]. The interfacial bond between heat without affecting the impact and tensile properties of WPC com­
the bio fiber and polymeric matrix plays a significant role in improving posites. Zhan et al.[213] reported that spirocyclic pentaerythritol
the mechanical properties of the composite. The addition of TiO2 bisphosphorate dis phosphoryl melamine (SPDPM) is an intumescent
nanoparticles enhances interfacial bindings between the bio fiber and flame retardant for PLA. Hapuarachchi and Peijs [214] studied a
polymeric matrix, which enhances the mechanical properties further. bio-based natural fiber composite with a high capacity of flame retard­
Uniform distribution of Silicon dioxide (SiO2) nanofillers within rein­ ancy. This natural fiber composite was built from PLA polymers. These
forcing natural polymeric composites, the elimination of bubbles before are derived from crops and combined with two different nanofillers.
curing in the matrix provide optimum performances of natural fiber They provide a synergy corresponding to flame retardancy.
composites [182]. It has been reported that the inclusion of silica
nanoparticles between jute fiber and matrix secures improvement in the 7.2.1. Flame Retardant and Thermal Properties of the NFPCs with
mechanical properties of the composites [183]. It has been revealed that inorganic nanofillers
the addition of three different nano-silica (1% each) between the epoxy The addition of micro/nano flame retardants (FRs) within the poly­
resin and ramie fiber raise the bonding strength and mechanical strength meric composites is the most well-known method to introduce flame
like tensile strength, flexural strength, and modulus of elasticity[184]. retardancy [215]. Umemura et al. [195] used ammonium poly­
Stiffness, impact strength, and creep resistance properties are increased phosphate(APP), melamine polyphosphate (MPP), and aluminum hy­
by reinforcing SiO2 with flax fiber and PP/HDPE composites [185]. droxide to modify the flammability of wood-plastic composites. Shah
The improvement in Tensile, Flexural and Impact strength of com­ et al. [216] used oyster shell powder as a calcium carbonate resource to
posites after adding inorganic nanoparticle into NFRPCs is shown in achieve flame retardancy in polypropylene. Sabbagh et al. [217] used
Figs. 4,5 and 6. two different additives of non-organic mineral and organic phosphate
FRs in flax fiber-reinforced engineering plastic composites. Thermal
7.2. Flame Retardant and Thermal Properties of the NFPCs stability can be enhanced in natural fiber polymer reinforced composites
by incorporating nanofillers such as TiO2[151], SiO2 [218]
Nowadays, natural fibers reinforced composites(NFRC) are used in Graphene-based [219], carbon nanotube based [220] nanoparticles.
the automobiles, aircraft, and construction industry [195]. However, Nonetheless, [221]thermal diffusivity, thermal conductivity, and
despite having several advantages, NFRC has a very low flame-resistant specific heat of the flax/HDPE composites decreased with the increase in
capacity [196] which led to in-flight, automobiles flame incidents, and fiber composition. On the other hand, thermal conductivity and thermal
therefore severe accidents. As natural fibers reinforced polymer com­ diffusivity did not alter noticeably within 170–200∘C. Also, the specific
posites are sensitive to flames, it becomes a priority to include the heat of the composites is enhanced slowly with temperature [57].
flame-retardancy features into these composites as safety measures. The Enzymatic treatments like hemicellulose treatment, pectinase treat­
burning of composites involves five steps; heating, decomposition, ment, etc., upgrade surface and thermal properties of different natural
ignition, combustion, propagation [197]. The flame retardant property fibers (such as; flax and hemp) [113,222]. Norul Izani et al. reported that
is introduced to stop ignition in any of these steps. Cellulose and lignin the chemical treatment by NaOH affects the morphological and tensile
are obtained in high amounts upon burning these composites. High strength of the EFB fiber. The chemical treatment enhances the fiber
cellulose enhances the risks of higher flammability, whereas high lignin surface topography, thermal stability, and tensile strength of the fiber. In
is responsible for char formation [198]. Usually, flax fibers give flame contrast, the chemical treatment using NaOH and water boiling caused
retardance [199]; however, silica or ash also has anti-flammable prop­ the higher thermal properties of the EFB fibers compared to untreated
erties [200]. fibers [223]. The peak heat release rate (PHRR) and minimum concen­
Various techniques are followed to increase the fire resistance ca­ tration of oxygen, which means that the limiting oxygen index (LOI) in a
pacity of different NFPCs. Among these methods, the most effective mixture of oxygen and also the nitrogen that is needed during the
flame resistance procedures for NEPCs involve char developing cellulose combustion of material, get reduced in the presence of nanoparticles
elements [201]by raising stability and char formation in the polymer. (Figs. 7 and 8).
Coating with fire retardant material is the other technique to increase
the fire resistance capacity of composites [202]. Aluminum hydroxide 7.3. Tribological Properties of NFRPCs with inorganic nanofillers
[Al(OH3)] and magnesium hydroxide [Mg(OH)2] are the most popular
metal hydroxide flame retardants utilized in polymers, among which All the materials possess wear and friction properties which gradu­
magnesium hydroxide offers better thermal stability than aluminum ally decrease with time. Hence to uplift the mechanics of a material, it is
hydroxide. Sauca et al. reported phosphorous-containing polymers by crucial to understand tribological loadings [65]. The tribological prop­
chemically modifying poly (vinyl alcohol) [203]. Zeytuncu et al. noticed erties of the fibers (Tables 9 and 10) change by reinforcement [224].
that the UV-curable boron-containing hybrid coatings on polycarbonate Numerous tribological investigations include various natural fibers,
substrates offer flame retardancy [204]. Tsafack et al. developed a such as kenaf/epoxy [105], betelnut fiber-reinforced polyester [225],
plasma coating method to construct cotton fibers-based flame retardant sisal/phenolic resin [226], sugarcane fiber reinforced polyester(SCRP)
composites [205]. Furthermore, the inclusion of expandable graphite [227], and cotton/polyester [228]. These investigations revealed that
(EG) and ammonium polyphosphate(APP) in composite polymer has natural fibers upgrade the wear and friction features of the target fibers
been found to increase the flame retardancy(FR) within flax fiber rein­ or polymers [222]. Fei Li et al. [229] reported the friction and wear
forced PP composites [206]. Ammonium polyphosphate (APP) is properties of polytetrafluoroethylene-filled ZnO nano, which diminishes
another vastly used, efficient, traditional, and eco-friendly flame resis­ the wear of this polymer. However, they got the best anti-wear property
tant explored to enhance the anti-flammable features of wood polymer when ZnO contains become 15%. The contact property of nanometer
composites WPCs [207]. Moreover, to make the WPCs more efficient ZnO/PTFE composite resembles unadulterated PTFE. In the wake of
flame-resistant other flame retardants like expandable graphite [208], filling the PTFE with nano ZnO powder, the microstructure of PTFE will
SiO2, or CaCO3 [209] are mixed with the APP. Furthermore, some change, and this new structure will keep away from the obliteration of
organic flame retardants were also developed to improve the flame the PTFE joined structure during the scouring process.
retardancy of WPCs by increasing the char yield [210,211]. Kalali, et.al. Feng-huaSu et al. [230] investigated the friction and wear properties
[212] developed a novel flame retardant, a combination of ammonium of different nano ZnO reinforced composites of hybrid glass / PTFE fabric

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T. Mishra et al. Composites Part C: Open Access 9 (2022) 100298

sliding towards AISI-1045 steel in a pin-on-disk design. The friction and A biodegradable natural biocomposite with TiO2 as the nanofiller
wear properties were assessed on Xuanwu-III high-temperature friction exhibits good UV resistance and water repellent properties [250].
and put on the analyzer, with the unfilled one. The scanning electron Within natural flax fiber reinforced with epoxy resin composites, epoxy
microscopy had been used to study the morphologies of the worn surfaces resin was modified with different percentages of 50 nm nano TiO2. The
of the composites and counterpart pins. Furthermore, the FTIR spectrum water diffusion was found to be decreased to 31.66% in the presence of
was recorded to identify the untreated composites. It is seen that the TiO2 [151].
untreated and handled hybrid glass / PTFE fabric composites reinforced Water absorption of composites with 5, 10, and 20 wt% of cura­
nano-ZnO show an opposition and erosion decrease in correlation with uáfiber was estimated in the presence of maleic anhydride grafted sty­
the unfilled. Kishore et al. [231]contemplated the glass/epoxy composite rene-(ethylene-co-butylene)-styrene triblock copolymer (MAg-SEBS)
sliding wear conduct filled up with different kinds of filler, for example, coupling agent upon addition of nano clay [243]. The composites at
rubber and oxide particles for bearing applications, using back on roller higher concentrations of curauá fiber and MMT nanoparticles exhibit
game-plan. They decided weight decrease as a component of sliding di­ reduced water absorption for all SBS composites [251]. With the
vision for different sliding pace ranges from 0.5 to 1.5 m/s at three incorporation of nano clay and TiO2 in epoxy composites reinforced
stacking settings 42, 140, and 190N separately. SEM has been utilized to within random and quasi-unidirectional untreated Phormiumtenax leaf
contemplate morphology on worn surfaces. They found that oxide-filled fibers, both the water and the water vapor absorption were found to be
composites had lower wear at a lower load. But, for elastic-filled com­ diminished [252]. Water uptake (%) increased upon inclusion of
posite, wear rate was lower at higher burden. J. Sudeepan et al. [232] SiO2and nano clay into wood polymer composites [253]. With the
investigated on tribological properties of ABS matrix filled with ZnO addition of polar nano-ZnO, jute fibers were found to be more hydro­
nanoparticles. They found that in the presence of the filler, the friction phobic but resided within the hydrophilic range (θ<90◦ ). Nonetheless,
coefficient and wear rate decrease with an increase in the load and sliding incorporating nano under the coating of fatty acid, the jute fiber trans­
speed. Naga Raju B et al. [233] investigated the tribological properties of formed into superhydrophobic [254].
ZnO-filled polymer nanocomposite. They prepared the sample by using The inclusion of nanofiller within natural fiber in the matrix de­
the following steps. creases water-absorption properties and enhances mechanical proper­
ties [255]. Mohan and Kanny [256] reported a reduction in water mass
1 ZnO nanoparticle was applied to polyester resin to obtain uniform uptake of nano clay-filled sisal fiber-reinforced composites based on the
dispersion by the ultra-sonication process. epoxy polymer with the rise of nano clay content. Turku and Kärki [257]
2 A smooth wooden mold with a diameter of 10 mm and a length of studied the effect of micro-sized glass fibers (GFs), carbon fibers (CFs),
100 mm was prepared to produce these composites and coated as a and nano-sized montmorillonite (MMT) on mechanical and physical
release agent with a light layer of liquid polyvinyl (PVA) acetate. properties of polypropylene (PP)/wood flour (WF) composite. They
3 Then, a mixture of polyester/ZnO nanoparticles and resin was observed a significant fall in the water absorption by 22% due to the
poured into the mold. addition of nano clay.
4 The substance was then healed for 24 hours under room temperature Hosseini et al. [258] showed that when nano-SiO2 is embedded
conditions and removed from the mold. Lastly, post-healed in the air within bagasse fiber-reinforced composites, there is an increase in water
for another 24 hours. absorption. Kushwaha et al. [259] found the addition of carbon nano­
5 Then, as per dimension, wear samples are cut. tubes (CNTs) in bamboo reinforced poxy composites lowered water
absorption of biocomposites. Devi and Maji [260] investigated the wood
The above steps are carried out by adding 1wt%, 2wt%, 3wt%, 4wt polymer nanocomposites (WPNCs) treated by the styrene-acrylonitrile
%, and 6wt% ZnO particles with polyester resin and then checking the copolymer in the presence of γ-tri methoxy silyl propyl
wear properties by using POD apparatus. It is found that 1% ZnO nano methacrylate-modified nano-SiO2 and nano clay into Simul wood (Sal­
polyester composite has excellent wear properties than pure polyester. malia malabarica). They reported a decrement in the water-uptake ca­
pacity while treated with modified nano SiO2 and a comparatively lesser
7.4. Water absorption test NFRPCs with inorganic fillers amount of water absorption in the presence of nano clay.
A study on the luffa natural fiber composite filled with nanofiller lead
Natural fibers are good reinforcements in polymers, although they oxide (PbO) 1.25 wt % demonstrated a decrease in the water absorption
are not free from certain drawbacks. The major drawback of natural capacity than the absence of the filler. Though, the moisture intake rises
fibers is their tendency to absorb moisture. As mentioned above, natural with the increase in the weight percentage of the nanofiller PbO. Here,
fibers consist of cellulose, hemicelluloses, lignin, and pectins, making the nanofiller PbO particles agglomerate and create voids [156].
them hydrophilic and highly polar. On the contrary, polymers are highly A decrease in the water absorption affinity in flax fiber composite
hydrophobic. Hence, interface adhesion between the polymer matrix was observed with the nano TiO2 in the matrix than nano TiO2. There
and natural fiber faces severe problem [65]. However, the mechanical forms an efficient interface bond between nano TiO2 and fiber and
properties of polymeric composites are dependent on the interface matrix. On the contrary, as the weight percentage of TiO2 in the matrix
bonding between the fiber and the polymer matrix and can be improved exceeds a threshold, voids can be present in the composite samples due
by the chemical treatment of fiber [68]. Several investigations have been to the agglomeration of TiO2 nanoparticles [151].
conducted on chemical therapies, such as bleaching, acetylation, and The moisture intake of luffa fiber, reinforced with nanofiller
alkali therapy. These therapies minimize the moisture absorption by graphene-modified epoxy matrix, was estimated. The authors discov­
NFPCs, uplift the adhesive behavior of fiber surface, and increase surface ered that the inclusion of 2 wt% filler graphene lowers the water ab­
area, which further confirms enhanced mechanical bonding [64,138, sorption capacity of fiber composite. But, as the weight percentage of the
247,248,249]. The fiber surface is cleaned before the chemical treat­ filler with matrix increased beyond 2 wt%, the moisture intake rose
ment so that no impurity is present. This cleansing increases the surface [191].
roughness of the fiber and reduces the moisture absorption by removing The study on kenaf/coconut fibers reinforced vinyl ester composites
the hydroxyl group from the fiber surface as shown in the equation with coconut shell nanofillers showed an increase in water absorption
below [63]. [261].
The sugar palm nano-fibrillated cellulose (SPNFC) is isolated from
Fiber − OH + NaOH = Fiber − O − Na + + H2 O
SPF and used as a nanofiller to reinforce sugar palm starch (SPS). It is a
The mechanism of moisture absorption in natural fibers can be un­ nanocomposite that displays excellent water resistance, low moisture
derstand from Fig. 9. absorption. The inclusion of 1 wt% SPNFCs loading upgraded the water

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T. Mishra et al. Composites Part C: Open Access 9 (2022) 100298

absorption than SPS [262]. E-class model uses fax-sisal fiber mat reinforced epoxy door panels [64].
Glass aluminum reinforced epoxy (GLARE), filled with various types Flax/sisal mat reinforced polyurethane composite with a mix is used for
of nanofillers, such as Silica (SiO2), titanium oxide (TiO2), aluminum door trim panels by Audi [271]. Ford utilizes kenaf fibers in their
oxide (Al2O3), copper (Cu), and aluminum (Al), displays an upliftment Mondeo model [272]. Volkswagen uses flax fiber polypropylene com­
in impact resistance under dry, distilled and seawater conditions. posite in their panels of the 2000 model Chevrolet Impala [273]. Also,
GLARE, filled with SiO2 nanoparticles, shows the highest impact Toyota, Proton, Volvo, and other automobile makers exploited cellulose
strength in dry conditions, and under purified and seawater conditions fiber. Besides the automobile applications, NFRPCs are finding their
with TiO2 nanoparticles the composite shows the highest impact application also in the electrical and electronic industries (printed cir­
strength [263]. cuit boards and electrical components assortment), aerospace (fire
The water absorption property of kenaf fiber particle reinforced retardant boards and high-performance components), sports, recreation
composite was examined by Alvin devadasi et al. [264]. First, the equipment, boats, machinery office products, etc. Due to its low specific
composite was weighted to achieve dry weight. A jar, water-filled, was weight, high strength, low manufacturing costs, resistance to corrosion
used to dip the specimen. Then, the container was left overnight for 16 and wear, complete biodegradability, progressive surface wrapping of
hours. After that, the test specimen was removed from the jar, wiped, molded composites, moderately high mechanical properties, accessible
and measured to obtain its moist weight. Three specimens were made for and renewable sources compared to synthetic fiber, NFRPCs in polymer
each composite type. Then the mean value was calculated. composites are widely used [274].In the construction industry, the
majority of the NFRPCs’ applications involve non-load-bearing indoor
(W/ (Dry weight)) × 100 = Water Absorption Percentage
components as these are prone to environmental damage [189].
Water Absorption Percentage = (ΔW/ (Dry weight)) × 100%
Weight difference, ΔW = Wet Weight − − Dry weight Nowadays, green buildings are trending, and bio composites are
explored as green materials. As mentioned above, the high stiffness to
Because natural particles are hydrophilic, water tends to absorb and weight ratio, lightweight, and biodegradability of NFRPCs ensure the
retain. Following the water absorption test (Fig. 10), the author found utility of use in this construction [275]. In building panels, roofing
increasing kenaf fiber in epoxy increased the percentage of water ab­ sheets, door frames, door shutters, transport, packaging, packing ma­
sorption, and NaOH treatment lowers water uptake by contracting the terial, window frame helmets, panels, decking, railing systems, fencing,
particle cellulose walls. racket tennis, bicycle frame, fork, seat post, snowboarding, different
NFRPCs like sisal fiber-reinforced composite [139], bamboo fiber, sisal
7.5. Eco-friendly Nature and Biodegradability of the NFRPCs in presence fiber, and coir fiber composites [276] are used successfully.
of inorganic nanofillers Additionally, polymer nanofibers have diverse applications in the
medicinal field. For example, they are frequently used in treating hu­
Along with many advantages of NFRPCs, the by-products of the manoid skin burns and wounds. It is also used in developing hemostatic
natural fiber reinforcement in polymers possess high biodegradability procedures and devices with specific characteristics. Application of the
and are thus eco-friendly [264]. On the one hand, natural fibers spray/spun of biodegradable polymers of the finest fibers directly on the
decompose as the temperatures rise(~240∘C); on the other hand, the injured and wounded skin through the electrical field form a fibrous mat
building blocks of fiber (like Hemicelluloses, cellulose, lignin, and dressing, boost the development of new skin growth, and thus heal
others) start to disintegrate at various temperatures [63,223]. However, wounds [6].
the thermal stability of the fibers depends upon the structural elements. However, NFRPCs is not free from limitations like moisture absorp­
Thus, a change in their concentrations, or the removal of them, enhance tion, restricted processing temperature, and variable quality, further
the thermal stability. For instance, when nano SiO2 is introduced to the restricting their applications [200].
Jute fiber reinforced epoxy composites as filler to upgrade its perfor­
mance, the waste lignocellulose and nano-SiO2 particles are recyclable, 8. Conclusion and Future Perspective
eco-friendly, and biodegradable [267]. Wood-plastic composite (WPC)
is another potential and environment-friendly material that is durable Natural fibers are good alternatives to synthetic fibers. The natural
and non-toxic at the same time. Moreover, in addition to the extra fiber reinforced polymer composites with their exclusive properties like
fibrous elements, plant fibers are another biodegradable, recyclable better mechanical characteristics, low density, cheap, and low solidity
substitute to the reinforced plastics, and therefore considered as po­ are advantageous in diverse fields of the automotive industry, buildings,
tential fillers and reinforcements for polymers [268]. In contrast to and constructions. This review discusses and estimates the recent ad­
synthetic fibers, natural fibers have a short lifetime and higher de­ vancements and improvements in the different properties of natural
gradability, causing less environmental pollution. After 1500 days of fiber reinforced polymer composites in the presence of different nano­
burial, jute or Biopol composite lost more than fifty percent of their fillers. Mainly, mechanical, thermal, energy absorption, moisture ab­
weight [269]. sorption, biodegradability, flame retardancy, tribology properties are
discussed here. The usefulness of these fabricated biocomposites in au­
7.6. Application of Natural fiber-reinforced polymer composite tomobiles, aerospace, electronics, construction, food packaging, etc., are
described. There is a clear indication from this review that inorganic
Numerous advantages make NFRPCs highly desirable in vast and nano-filled NFRPCs are justified for usage in engineering applications
various fields of application. Natural fibers like jute, hemp, kenaf, oil because of their similar mechanical strength to synthetic fibers and less
palm, and bamboo reinforced polymer composite have found their environmental impact. But enhancing and managing the mechanical
implementations in different automotive applications(interior-exterior characteristics of NFRPCs with nanofillers is extremely difficult. To
panels, gas tanks, and bumpers), structural components, packing, and support and promote the use of novel natural fibres and novel chemical
construction/development industry (fundamental boards and building processes in the advancement of NFRPCs, further study is also needed
sections) [269] (Fig. 11). European car manufacturers like German auto from the research community.
companies BMW, Audi Group, Ford, Opel, Volkswagen, Daimler Last but not least, we can deduce that NFRPCs development is
Chrysler, and Mercedes put a lot of effort to upgrade the implementation accelerating and that it is envisioned as a future sustainable material for
of NFPCs like cellulose fibers composites in the automotive industry, developing applications. NFRPCs use is increasing, especially in the
more particularly in car interiors [270] as well as in exterior auto body automobile industry, at the moment. It is anticipated that with the
components [71]. For instance, the Mercedes Benz A-class model ex­ tremendous breakthroughs in materials science, we will eventually
plores coconut fibers, rubber, latex composites for the seats, and the achieve superior NFRPCs properties by regulating inorganic nanofillers

14
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