buildings

Article
Effect of Thermal Cycles and Curing Age on Bonding Strength of
Cement Mortar Using Manufactured Sand
Hongzhi Cui 1 , Houquan Peng 1 , Weiwei Yang 2 , Haibin Yang 1 , Chaohui Zhang 1,2 and Dapeng Zheng 1, *

1 Key Laboratory for Resilient Infrastructures of Coastal Cities (MOE), College of Civil and Transportation
Engineering, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen 518060, China; [email protected] (H.C.);
[email protected] (H.P.); [email protected] (H.Y.); [email protected] (C.Z.)
2 Shenzhen Metro Group Co., Ltd., Shenzhen 518026, China; [email protected]
* Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +86-755-26917849

Abstract: The bonding of cement mortar to the concrete substrate is crucial in buildings. In this study,
cement mortar was prepared using manufactured sand (MS) instead of river sand (RS). The bonding
strength between manufactured sand mortar (MSM) and concrete substrate was evaluated and the
effects of curing age, water-to-cement ratio (w/c) and thermal cycling on the bonding strength were
discussed and compared with those of the river sand mortar (RSM). The compressive strength of
the MSM was consistently higher than that of the RSM, while the bonding strength of RSM was
consistently higher than that of MSM, indicating that the bonding strength does not depend on the
compressive strength of the mortar. As the number of thermal cycles increased, the pull-off strengths
at the interface between the concrete and MSM or RSM at different w/c ratios all decreased, and the
RSM experienced a larger reduction. After 400 cycles, the percentage decrease in bonding strength of
MSM sample ranged from 18.62% to 30.86%.

Keywords: manufactured sand; cement mortar; bonding strength; thermal cycle; curing age

1. Introduction
Citation: Cui, H.; Peng, H.; Yang, W.; The external wall structures of a building usually consist of three main components:
Yang, H.; Zhang, C.; Zheng, D. Effect concrete substrates, mortar and tiles [1]. Generally, the factors that affect the stability
of Thermal Cycles and Curing Age on of the building exterior wall structure include the shrinkage deformation of adhesive
Bonding Strength of Cement Mortar materials, mismatch of thermal expansion between materials, weathering problems and
Using Manufactured Sand. Buildings invasion of chemical pollutants [2–6]. From field observations, the interfacial transition
2024, 14, 783. https://doi.org/ zone (ITZ) between mortar and concrete substrates is the most vulnerable part of the
10.3390/buildings14030783 external wall structure [7]. Some studies have been conducted on the shear stress, interface
Academic Editor: Xiaoyong Wang
resistance and bonding strength of the ITZ for external wall structures with different types
of mortar [5–10]. Due to long-term thermal expansion causing differential movement
Received: 2 January 2024 among the material layers, shear stress is one of the main causes for the fading of external
Revised: 6 February 2024 wall tile structures [1,11]. Differential thermal expansion and contraction within a wall
Accepted: 1 March 2024 section due to the heat of hydration can also cause thermal cracking [12]. The external
Published: 13 March 2024
wall tile structures are exposed to an external environment that suffers a severe weathering
effect. Bochen [13] found that there was a great decrease of bonding strengths for the
mineral plaster (61.5%) and lime-sand plaster (37.7%) under a weathering effect.
Copyright: © 2024 by the authors.
Nowadays, river sand (RS) is used as a fine aggregate to produce adhesive mortars,
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. which are widely used in external rendering and internal finishing. However, the lim-
This article is an open access article ited supply of RS and the adverse impact of dredged RS on the environment may lead
distributed under the terms and to increased costs and delays in construction projects. To minimize this environmental
conditions of the Creative Commons problem and meet the goal of sustainable development, researchers have conducted studies
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// on river sand alternatives, focusing on the possibility of artificially grinding aggregate
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ particles to a smooth shape in order to increase the packing density and workability of fine
4.0/). aggregate [14–18]. This kind of fine aggregate is called manufactured sand (MS). MS is a

Buildings 2024, 14, 783. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14030783 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/buildings

Buildings 2024, 14, 783 2 of 12

product of rock fragmentation, and its characteristics are determined by the parent rock
structure and the fracture mode, etc. [19]. Therefore, the shape, gradation and physical
properties of MS are different from those of RS, which have an important influence on the
workability and mechanical properties of concrete [15,17,20–22]. In addition, the rheology
and viscosity of the mortar and the durability of the concrete are closely related to the
particle characteristics of the fine aggregate [17,23]. When the w/c is the same, the mortar
with MS may have a lower workability compared with the mortar prepared with RS due to
the angular particle properties [24,25].
MS has been widely used as a substitute for RS in recent years [23]. However, there
are few studies on the use of MS as a plastering mortar for exterior wall structures and the
effects of weathering on its application. It is worth noting that due to the special particle
characteristics and physical properties of MS, the workability of manufactured sand mortar
(MSM) is different from that of river sand mortar (RSM), and the bonding properties of ITZ
between concrete substrates and cement mortar with MS are unclear. This study explored
the effects of w/c, curing age and weathering on the bonding strength of cement mortar
and concrete substrates. In addition, using RS as a model for comparison, the influence
mechanism was also analyzed to discuss the possibility of MS application in mortar used
in external wall structures. This is of practical significance for expanding the application
range of MS, reducing construction costs and developing green buildings.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Particle Size Analysis of MS and RS
The compressive strength of concrete strongly depends on the particle size distribution
of the aggregate [26]. Due to its production process, MS has the characteristics of smaller
strain stiffness, lower density and higher critical state friction angle [19]. However, the ir-
regular shape of MS can provide a better interlocking structure and improve the strength of
the concrete [27]. In addition, different particle size distributions and surface characteristics
of the sand affect the workability under the same w/c conditions [28,29].
The MS was dried for 24 h at a temperature of 105 ± 5 ◦ C. The sieves were cleaned
using brushes and arranged in the correct order. The particle size distribution of the MS and
the RS were compared and analyzed, and the results are shown in Figure 1. Line C, M and
F are the classification limits of the fine aggregate according to the CS3:2013 standard [30].
Figure 1 shows that the particle size distribution of RS is mainly concentrated in the range
of 0.3–1.18 mm, and the RS with a particle size within this range accounts for about 90% of
the total mass. Compared with RS, the particle size of the MS is more evenly distributed in
the range of 0.063–5 mm. According to Figure 1, the MS can be classified as Grade M, and
the sand with a particle size below 0.15 mm accounts for 7.315% of the total mass, which is
much higher than the standard Grade C and M. The results indicate that the MS satisfies
Buildings 2024, 14, 783 the corresponding limit classification range, and it can be inferred that3 ofthe
12 MS has a higher
bulk density when preparing the cement mortar.

100 MS
RS
C
80 M
Passing percentage (%)

F
60

40

20

0.01 0.1 1 10
Particle size (mm)

Figure 1. Particle size distribution of MS and RS.

Figure 1. Particle size distribution of MS and RS.
2.2. Mix Proportion of Concrete Substrates and Mortar
The mix proportion of concrete substrates is shown in Table 1. Allowing sufficient
time for the drying and initial shrinkage of the concrete substrate contributes to the for-
mation of a higher bonding strength. Due to the relatively small size of the concrete sub-
strate and the time span of the research, two weeks were reserved for the initial shrinkage
of the concrete substrate in this experiment.
Buildings 2024, 14, 783 3 of 12

2.2. Mix Proportion of Concrete Substrates and Mortar

The mix proportion of concrete substrates is shown in Table 1. Allowing sufficient time
for the drying and initial shrinkage of the concrete substrate contributes to the formation of
a higher bonding strength. Due to the relatively small size of the concrete substrate and the
time span of the research, two weeks were reserved for the initial shrinkage of the concrete
substrate in this experiment.

Table 1. Mix proportion of concrete substrate.

Cement (kg) 10 mm Aggregate (kg) 20 mm Aggregate (kg) Water (kg)

40 103 73 22

In addition, the mortar with two w/c (0.42 and 0.50) was applied and the ratio of
cement to sand was 1:3. The mix proportion of mortar is shown in Table 2. The Buildings
Department of Hong Kong has issued a Practice Note for Registered Contractors, with rev.
in 2013, stating that the total thickness of the coating should not be greater than 20 mm and
the thickness of each coating should be in the range of 8 mm to 16 mm. This standard is the
same as the British Standard (BS EN 13914-1:2016). In this research, the thickness of the
MSM and RSM was set to 15 mm. The prepared samples were demolded after 24 h and
placed in a standard maintenance room to cure for various lengths of time (0, 3 and 7 days).

Table 2. Mix proportion of mortar.

Mix Cement (kg) MS or RS (kg) Water (kg) w/c

Mix 1 1.5 4.5 0.63 0.42
Mix 2 1.5 4.5 0.75 0.50

2.3. Thermal Cycling Experiment

Thermal cycle testing was used to simulate the weathering environment in which
building exterior wall structures are located. The thermal cycle testing was performed by
freezing the specimens to 0 ◦ C for 30 min in a fridge and then thawing them to 25 ◦ C over
30 min. In addition, the thermal cycling was repeated manually by turning the fridge on
and off, and each set of specimens were tested after undergoing 0 (no thermal cycles), 100,
200, 300 and 400 thermal cycles.

2.4. Compressive Strength Test

RSM and MSM cube samples with a volume of 100 × 100 × 100 mm were prepared
according to the ratio in Table 2. Mechanical properties of hardened mortar samples were
tested according to the standard GB/T50107-2010.

2.5. Pull-Out Test

The proper adhesion between the layers of external wall structures has an important
effect on durability. In order to measure the bonding strength between the concrete wall
substrate and the mortar, the pull-off test is necessary. Bond strength is the maximum
applied tensile strength that causes the cracking of the mortar on the surface of the concrete
substrate [31]. The defined pull-head plate was bonded to a defined area of the mortar
surface and then subjected to a vertical tensile load for measurement. The bonding strength
is determined using the following Formula (1) [32] where fu and Fu stand for the bonding
strength (N/mm2 ) and failure load (N), respectively. A represents the cylindrical test area
to which tensile stress is applied (mm2 ).

Fu
fu = N/mm2 (1)
A
 crete substrate [31]. The defined pull-head plate was bonded to a defined area of the mor-
tar surface and then subjected to a vertical tensile load for measurement. The bonding
strength is determined using the following Formula (1) [32] where 𝑓𝑢 and 𝐹𝑢 stand for the
bonding strength (N/mm2) and failure load (N), respectively. A represents the cylindrical
Buildings 2024, 14, 783 test area to which tensile stress is applied (mm2). 4 of 12
𝐹𝑢
𝑓𝑢 = 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2 (1)
𝐴

Theconcrete
The concretesubstrate
substratewaswas cured
cured forfor
two two weeks
weeks andand the surfaces
the surfaces of theofconcrete
the concrete
sub-
substrate
strate werewere pre-wetted
pre-wetted withwith
waterwater
beforebefore applying
applying the fresh
the fresh mortar.
mortar. A layerA layer of mortar
of mortar with
awith a thickness
thickness of 15ofmm
15 mm
waswas placed
placed overover
thethe surface
surface of of concretesubstrates.
concrete substrates.The Theprepared
prepared
samples were demolded after 24 h and placed in a standard maintenance
samples were demolded after 24 h and placed in a standard maintenance room to cure room to curefor
for
various lengths of time (0, 3 and 7 days). After different numbers of thermal
various lengths of time (0, 3 and 7 days). After different numbers of thermal cycles (100, cycles (100,
200, 300
200, 300 and and 400
400 cycles),
cycles), the
the experimental
experimentalsamples
sampleswerewerecutcutinto
intoaa circular
circular area
area ofof about
about
50 mm
50 mm in in diameter
diameter atat the
the mortar
mortar layer
layer byby aa core
core drilling
drilling machine,
machine, andand the
the cutting
cutting depth
depth
required to
required to penetrate
penetrate the
the interface
interfaceand
andenter
enterthe
theconcrete
concretesubstrate
substrateby by55 mmmm is is shown
shown in in
Figure 2a. A cylindrical metal plate (50 mm in diameter) was then glued
Figure 2a. A cylindrical metal plate (50 mm in diameter) was then glued onto the area onto the area using
an epoxy
using adhesive
an epoxy (bonding
adhesive strengthstrength
(bonding betweenbetween
epoxy adhesive and concrete
epoxy adhesive ≥ 10 MPa),
and concrete as
≥ 10
shown in Figure 2b. Depending on the expected bonding strength, the
MPa), as shown in Figure 2b. Depending on the expected bonding strength, the stress load stress load should
be applied
should at a constant
be applied speed and
at a constant impacts
speed are avoided
and impacts in the range
are avoided in theof range
0.003 toof 0.010
0.003 N/
to
(mm 2 ·s).
0.010 N/ (mm2·s).

(a) (b) (c)

Figure
Figure 2. Pull-off test:
2. Pull-off test: (a)
(a)groove
grooveofof5050
mmmm diameter
diameter andand 5 mm
5 mm deep,deep, (b) cylindrical
(b) cylindrical metalmetal plate
plate glued
glued to the surface of the test sample and (c) fracture surface of a sample after pull-out
to the surface of the test sample and (c) fracture surface of a sample after pull-out test. test.

Figure
Figure 3a
3a shows
shows aa schematic
schematic diagram
diagram of of the
the pull-off
pull-off test
test sample
sample and
and three
three possible
possible
fracture
fracture modes
modes withwith valid
valid results
results shown
shown in in Figure
Figure 3b–d.
3b–d. TheThe fracture
fracture modes
modes shown
shown in in
Figure
Figure 3b,c
3b,c are
are two
two kinds
kinds ofof cohesion
cohesion fracture
fracture that
that occur
occur inside
inside the
the mortar
mortar or or concrete
concrete
substrate,
substrate, which
whichindicates
indicatesthat
thatthere
there isis no
no failure
failure between
between thethe interface
interface of
of the
the mortar
mortar andand
concrete
concrete substrate,
substrate, andand the
the result
result should
should be be considered
considered to to be
be the
the lower
lower limit.
limit. The
Thefracture
fracture
mode
mode shown
shownin in Figure
Figure 3d3d is
is an
an adhesive
adhesive fracture
fracture and and the
the fracture
fracture occurs
occurs atat the
the interface
interface
between the cement mortar and concrete substrate. When this
between the cement mortar and concrete substrate. When this type of fracture occurs, type of fracture occurs,
the
Buildings 2024, 14, 783 the obtained
obtained datadata represent
represent the adhesion
the adhesion that causes
that causes the mortar
the mortar layerlayer to detach
to detach the5 con-
from from ofthe
12
concrete
crete substrate
substrate [33].[33].

Figure 3.
Figure 3. (a)
(a) Simplified
Simplified schematic
schematic of
of pull-off
pull-off test;
test; three
three different
different failure
failure modes
modes during
during the
the pull-off
pull-off
test: (b) fracture surface is inside the mortar, (c) fracture surface is inside the concrete and (d) frac-
test: (b) fracture surface is inside the mortar, (c) fracture surface is inside the concrete and (d) fracture
ture surface is at the interface between concrete and mortar.
surface is at the interface between concrete and mortar.
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Compressive Strength of MSM and RSM
Figure 4a shows that the compressive strengths of MSM and RSM with 0.42 w/c are
all higher than those of MSM and RSM with 0.50 w/c. Specifically, when cured for 7 days,
the compressive strength of MSM with 0.42 w/c reached 48.63 MPa, which is 16.12% (about
6.75 MPa) higher than that of MSM with 0.50 w/c. The compressive strength of RSM with
0.42 w/c at 7 d is 42.97 MPa, which is 5.71% (2.32 MPa) higher than that of RSM with 0.50
Buildings 2024, 14, 783 5 of 12

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Compressive Strength of MSM and RSM
Figure 4a shows that the compressive strengths of MSM and RSM with 0.42 w/c are
all higher than those of MSM and RSM with 0.50 w/c. Specifically, when cured for 7 days,
the compressive strength of MSM with 0.42 w/c reached 48.63 MPa, which is 16.12% (about
6.75 MPa) higher than that of MSM with 0.50 w/c. The compressive strength of RSM with
0.42 w/c at 7 d is 42.97 MPa, which is 5.71% (2.32 MPa) higher than that of RSM with
0.50 w/c. When the curing age is 28 d, the compressive strength of MSM with 0.42 w/c
increased to 60.25 MPa, which is 19.07% (about 9.56 MPa) higher than that of MSM with
0.50 w/c. The compressive strength of the RSM with 0.42 w/c at 28 d is 59 MPa, which
is 10.38% (5.55 MPa) higher than that of RSM with 0.50 w/c. These results show that
the higher the w/c, the lower the concrete strength, which follows the normal behavior
of strength development [34], and the w/c has a greater impact on the MSM than the
RSM. In addition, when the w/c and curing age are the same, the compressive strength
of MSM is always higher than that of RSM. The irregular shape of MS could provide a
Buildings 2024, 14, 783 6 of 12
better interlocking structure and improve the strength of concrete [20,28,35,36], which can
be used to explain the results of this experiment.

Figure4.4.(a)
Figure (a)Compressive
Compressive strength
strength and
and (b)
(b) failure
failure patterns
patternsof
ofMSM
MSMcubes.
cubes.

Studies
As shown have shown 4b,
in Figure thatvertical
a lowercracks
w/c results
can beinobserved
the pooreronworkability
the surfacesofofthe
allfresh
MSM
mortar, while a higher w/c results in lower mortar strength [20]. Although the
and RSM cubes with a w/c of 0.42 and 0.50. The cracks are nearly equal in size, with little strength is
slightly lower, the mortar with 0.50 w/c samples has a higher workability
damage to the contact face between the cube and the compressive testing machine. This than that with
0.42 w/c,that
indicates so the
themortar
cubes can
hadbeaneasily applied and
even surface to the concrete
resisted thesubstrate. On the therefore,
loading evenly; other hand, the
despite the higher strength,
experimental results are effective.it may be more difficult to establish good chemical properties
between mortar
Studies havewith
shown0.42that
w/c aand the w/c
lower concrete substrate
results in the due to the
poorer relatively of
workability poorthepro-
fresh
cessability. Therefore, in this study, two kinds of w/c (0.42 and 0.50) were
mortar, while a higher w/c results in lower mortar strength [20]. Although the strength used to prepare
isthe MSM and
slightly RSM
lower, thefor the pull-out
mortar test w/c
with 0.50 to investigate
samples thehaseffect of the
a higher water-cement
workability thanratio
that
on bonding strength.
with 0.42 w/c, so the mortar can be easily applied to the concrete substrate. On the other
hand, despite the higher strength, it may be more difficult to establish good chemical
3.2. Bonding
properties Strengthmortar
between of MSM and0.42
with RSMw/c and the concrete substrate due to the relatively
3.2.1.processability.
poor Influence of Curing Age and
Therefore, Water-Cement
in this Ratioof
study, two kinds onw/c
the (0.42
Bonding
andStrength of used
0.50) were MSMto
and RSM
prepare the MSM and RSM for the pull-out test to investigate the effect of the water-cement
ratio on
Thebonding
effect ofstrength.
curing time on the bonding strength at the interface between the differ-
ent kinds of mortar and the concrete substrate is shown in Figure 5. When the curing age
and the number of thermal cycles were certain, the pull-off strength of the sample pre-
pared according to the w/c of 0.42 is higher than that of the sample with 0.5 w/c. When
the curing time is 0 days and the number of thermal cycles is 0, the pull-off strength at the
interface between the concrete substrate and MSM with 0.42 w/c is 2.04 MPa. When the
w/c is increased to 0.5, the pull-off strength is reduced by about 13.46% to 1.76 MPa. In
contrast, the bonding strength of RSM decreased 5% from 2.6 MPa to 2.47 MPa. It’s re-
ported that the increase in w/c ratio will reduce the bonding strength and increase the
 from 0 to 7 d, the bonding strengths of MSM (the number of thermal cycles is 0 and the
w/c is 0.42 and 0.50) increased from 2.04 MPa and 1.76 MPa to 2.14 MPa and 2.03 MPa,
Buildings 2024, 14, 783 respectively. In contrast, under the same conditions, the bonding strength of RSM in-
6 of 12
creased from 2.6 MPa and 2.47 MPa to 2.98 MPa and 2.9 MPa. The tendency of bonding
strength growth is similar under other refrigeration cycle conditions, while the bonding
strengths of RSM were always higher than MSM. This is contrary to the experimental re-
3.2. Bonding Strength of MSM and RSM
sults for compressive strength.
3.2.1. Influence of Curing Age and Water-Cement Ratio on the Bonding Strength of MSM
It is well known that hydration is one of the key processes to increase the strength of
and RSM
mortar, which requires an appropriate amount of water. The strength, volume stability
and The effect ofcan
durability curing time on the
be improved by bonding
maintaining strength at the
optimal interface
moisture between
content the different
in the mortar
kinds of mortar and the concrete substrate is shown in Figure
substrate [38]. Neville [37] found that the hydration reaction nearly stops when the 5. When the curing age and
rela-
the number of thermal cycles were certain, the pull-off strength
tive humidity inside the cement sample drops below 80%, so it is important to maintain of the sample prepared
according to the w/c
proper moisture of 0.42during
conditions is higher than that
the curing of theThe
process. sample
curingwith 0.5 w/c.
process Whenthe
can reduce the
curing time is 0 days and the number of thermal cycles is 0, the
amount of water loss and provide water for the hydration process at an early stage of the pull-off strength at the
interface
hardening between
process, the concrete
which substrate
increases and MSM
the strength. with 0.42the
However, w/c is 2.04 strength
bonding MPa. When of thethe
w/c
mortar and concrete substrate is affected by the degree of penetration of the paste into theIn
is increased to 0.5, the pull-off strength is reduced by about 13.46% to 1.76 MPa.
contrast, the bonding
mortar-concrete strength
substrate of RSM
interface anddecreased
the interior 5% from
of the2.6 MPa to pores.
substrate 2.47 MPa.
When It’sthe
reported
con-
that the increase in w/c ratio will reduce the bonding strength
crete is exposed to a weathered environment, evaporation of water can cause a decrease and increase the workability
ofinthe cementinmortar
moisture [37]. With
the cement, whichancanincrease
result in of its
theincomplete
number ofhydration.
thermal cycles, the pull-off
In addition, the
strength at the interface between the MSM, RSM and concrete
early drying of the concrete can cause shrinkage cracks on the surface that will result substrate with a w/cinofa 2
all decreased
decrease by varying
in concrete degrees,
strength while the pull-off
[39]. Therefore, strength
in a weathered with 0.42 w/c
environment, was always
a longer early
higher
cure time is more beneficial for the development of bonding strength. Thus, the time
than the strength when the w/c is 0.5. In addition, when the curing was 3
compres-
and
sive strength of the mortar is closely related to the strength of the sand particles and thebe
7 days, the pull-off strengths had a similar development trend. Therefore, it can
concluded
hardened cementthat thepaste,
higher the w/c,
while the lower
the bonding the bonding
strength is largely strength.
determined Therefore, it can be
by the interfa-
determined
cial adhesion that MSM with
strength 0.42 the
between w/cconcrete
would provide
substrate, a stronger bonding
sand particles andstrength
the hardenedand an
MSM
cement with 0.50These
paste. w/c would
resultsprovide
indicatean acceptable
that the bonding strength withisanot
strength higher workability;
proportional this
to the
information guided the preparation
compressive strength of the mortar. of mechanical mortar in the project.

Figure5.5. The
Figure The effect
effect of
of different
differentcuring
curingtimes
timesonon
pull-off strength
pull-off of MSM
strength withwith
of MSM (a) 0.42 w/c and
(a) 0.42 w/c(b)
and
0.50 w/c and RSM with (c) 0.42 w/c and (d) 0.50 w/c.
(b) 0.50 w/c and RSM with (c) 0.42 w/c and (d) 0.50 w/c.

Figure 5 shows that the bonding strength is subjected to early curing conditions.
Obviously, under the same thermal cycle and w/c conditions, the bonding strength of the
MSM and RSM samples increased with the curing age. When the curing time increased
from 0 to 7 d, the bonding strengths of MSM (the number of thermal cycles is 0 and the
w/c is 0.42 and 0.50) increased from 2.04 MPa and 1.76 MPa to 2.14 MPa and 2.03 MPa,
Buildings 2024, 14, 783 7 of 12

respectively. In contrast, under the same conditions, the bonding strength of RSM increased
from 2.6 MPa and 2.47 MPa to 2.98 MPa and 2.9 MPa. The tendency of bonding strength
growth is similar under other refrigeration cycle conditions, while the bonding strengths
of RSM were always higher than MSM. This is contrary to the experimental results for
compressive strength.
It is well known that hydration is one of the key processes to increase the strength
of mortar, which requires an appropriate amount of water. The strength, volume stability
and durability can be improved by maintaining optimal moisture content in the mortar
substrate [38]. Neville [37] found that the hydration reaction nearly stops when the relative
humidity inside the cement sample drops below 80%, so it is important to maintain proper
moisture conditions during the curing process. The curing process can reduce the amount
of water loss and provide water for the hydration process at an early stage of the hardening
process, which increases the strength. However, the bonding strength of the mortar and
concrete substrate is affected by the degree of penetration of the paste into the mortar-
concrete substrate interface and the interior of the substrate pores. When the concrete is
exposed to a weathered environment, evaporation of water can cause a decrease in moisture
in the cement, which can result in its incomplete hydration. In addition, the early drying
of the concrete can cause shrinkage cracks on the surface that will result in a decrease in
concrete strength [39]. Therefore, in a weathered environment, a longer early cure time is
more beneficial for the development of bonding strength. Thus, the compressive strength of
the mortar is closely related to the strength of the sand particles and the hardened cement
paste, while the bonding strength is largely determined by the interfacial adhesion strength
between the concrete substrate, sand particles and the hardened cement paste. These
results indicate that the bonding strength is not proportional to the compressive strength of
the mortar.

3.2.2. Influence of Thermal Cycles on the Bonding Strength of MSM and RSM
In this experiment, 400 thermal cycles were set and the temperature change in each
cycle was from 25 to 0 ◦ C and then back to 25 ◦ C. Figure 6 shows that the pull-off strength
of samples with the same w/c and curing time continued to decrease as the number of
thermal cycles increased, indicating that the bonding strength of external wall structures
with MSM or RSM is inversely proportional to the weathering effect. The strength reduction
of bonding with respect to temperature cycle can be attributed to the aging effect of material
exposed to the natural environment, rainfall, solar radiation and wind [40]. The change in
high and low temperature is particularly serious for the aging of building materials such as
mortar. Under the influence of periodicity, shrinkage or expansion causes the formation of
micro-cracks and pores, which reduces strength durability [12].
Aiming to analyze the influence of thermal cycling on the pull-off strength more
accurately, the development of MSM and RSM bonding strength was further analyzed
using a straight line fitting equation (y = a + bx). Referring to the calculation methods
published in existing research [41], the test probabilities for each estimated parameter were
<<0.05, indicating the statistical significance of the results. The fitting results are shown
in Figure 6, and Table 3 presents the coefficients from the fitting equation in Figure 6. The
a-value refers to the y-intercept of the line. This means that the a-value stands for the
theoretical bonding strength of MSM subjected to 0 thermal cycles. As shown in Table 3,
under the same water-cement ratio conditions, the longer the curing age, the higher the
a-value. This is consistent with the study in the previous section. In addition, the coefficient
b represents the rate of decrease in bonding strength. It can be seen from Table 3 that the
absolute value of the b coefficient of the MSM is always lower than that of the RSM under
the same curing time and water-cement ratio. This indicates that the effect of thermal
cycling on RSM is higher than its effect on MSM. In other words, RSM is more susceptible
to weathering than MSM. However, after comparing the data of the two kinds of mortars
in Figure 6, it can be concluded that the bonding strength of RSM is always higher than
the MSM when the same number of thermal cycles is experienced. This demonstrates that
gs 2024, 14, 783 8 of 12

Buildings 2024, 14, 783 8 of 12

3.2.2. Influence of Thermal Cycles on the Bonding Strength of MSM and RSM
In this experiment, 400 thermal cycles were set and the temperature change in each
cycle was fromalthough
25 to 0 °Cthe
and bonding
then back strength of RSM
to 25 °C. Figureis6more
shows affected
that theby weathering,
pull-off strengthit is still higher
of samples withthan
thethe bonding
same w/c and strength
curing of time
MSMcontinued
in the same to environment.
decrease as the Onnumber
the other
of hand, Table 3
thermal cyclesshows that the
increased, fitness of
indicating each
that thefitting
bonding equation is higher
strength than 92%,
of external wall which indicates that this
structures
with MSM or RSM is inversely proportional to the weathering effect. The strength reduc- strength. It is
equation can be used to simulate the effect of thermal cycling on the bonding
tion of bondingworth
withnoting
respectthat the fitting results
to temperature cycle in
canthis
be part are only
attributed applicable
to the whenofthe number of
aging effect
material exposed to the natural environment, rainfall, solar radiation and wind [40].toThe
thermal cycles is under 400. If the number of thermal cycles continues increase, a rapid
change in highdecrease
and lowintemperature
the pull-out is strength may be
particularly observed.
serious Theaging
for the relationship between
of building ma- more thermal
terials such as mortar. Under the influence of periodicity, shrinkage or expansion causesin subsequent
cycles and the thermal effects of real walls needs to be further discussed
the formation studies [42].
of micro-cracks and pores, which reduces strength durability [12].

Figure 6. The changes of pull-off strength of MSM and RSM with the increase in thermal cycles at
Figure 6. The changes of pull-off strength of MSM and RSM with the increase in thermal cycles at
different curing ages: (a) MSM curing for 0 days, (b) MSM curing for 3 days, (c) MSM curing for 7
different curing ages: (a) MSM curing for 0 days, (b) MSM curing for 3 days, (c) MSM curing for
days, (d) RSM curing for 0 days, (e) RSM curing for 3 days and (f) RSM curing for 7 days.
7 days, (d) RSM curing for 0 days, (e) RSM curing for 3 days and (f) RSM curing for 7 days.
Aiming to analyze the influence of thermal cycling on the pull-off strength more ac-
curately, the development of MSM and RSM bonding strength was further analyzed using
Buildings 2024, 14, 783 9 of 12

Table 3. Comparison of the fitting equations.

Kinds of Mortar Curing Time (Days) w/c Ratio Coefficient a Coefficient b R2 (%)
0.42 2.083 −0.0016 96.43
0
0.50 1.795 −0.0012 93.67
0.42 2.097 −0.0010 98.77
MSM 3
0.50 1.809 −0.0008 92.02
0.42 2.175 −0.0013 96.50
7
0.50 2.051 −0.0013 98.43
Buildings 2024, 14, 783
0.42 2.590 −0.0023 99.93
10 of 12
0
0.50 2.434 −0.0022 98.88
0.42 2.946 −0.0016 97.65
RSM 3
0.50 2.878 −0.0022 98.05
In addition, Figure 7b shows 0.42 3.008 − 0.0013 97.06
that the percent reduction in RSM bonding strength
7
0.50 2.960 − 0.0017 94.60is
decreases as the mortar’s early curing time increases. This suggests that early curing
beneficial to RSM bonding strength under a weathering effect. Moreover, the RSM has a
greater reduction
Figure in thethe
7 shows bonding strength
percentage after experiencing
reduction in bondingdifferent
strength thermal
of MSM cycles
andwhen
RSM
the w/c is relatively
compared high.value
to the initial This means that aafter
of 0 cycles higher water-cement
different numbers ratio will cause
of cycles (100,the RSM
200, 300
and
to lose400) of thermal
water cycling. As
in the weathering the numberand
environment of form
thermalmore cycles increases,
pores, resultingthe
in percentage
a decrease
decrease
in bondinginstrength
bonding[12,43–45].
strength increases continuously,
In contrast, for the MSM and the rateitofcan
samples, decrease continues
be concluded thatto
increase.
there is noAfter 400 relationship
direct cycles, the percentage
between decrease
curing time in MSMand bonding strength exceeds
the degradation 18%,
of bonding
and the under
strength highestthermal
decrease percentage
cycling. reaches
In other words,30.86%.
underFor theMSM
same prepared with 0.42
thermal cycling w/c
condi-
and cured for 0 days, 3 days and 7 days, the bonding strength reduction
tions, the bonding strength of samples with longer curing times will not vary proportion- percentages were
30.86%,
ally. 19.98%inand
Therefore, the24.91%, respectively,
case of the weathering after 400early
effect, thermal cycles.
curing doesMeanwhile,
not appear when the
to be the
water-cement
only dominantratio was
factor 0.50, thethe
affecting bonding
bondingstrength decreased
strength. by 26.63%,
It is worth noting 18.62% and 26.23%
that after more
under
than 200the same conditions,
thermal cycles, the MSMrespectively.
samplesFor RSM
cured forprepared
3 days had withthea w/c
lowestof 0.45 and 0.50
reduction in
cured forstrength.
bonding 0 days, 3This
daysphenomenon
and 7 days, the bonding
indicates strength
that decreased
over-curing may by be 35.77%,
harmful23.02% and
to the de-
18.12% andof37.25%,
velopment 33.1% and
MSM bonding 24.48%,
strength inrespectively, after 400 cycles.
weathered environments.
35 40
Reduction percentage of pull-off strength (kN)

Reduction percentage of pull-off strength (kN)

0.42 w/c & 0 d curing 0.42 w/c & 0 d curing

30 35
0.42 w/c & 3 d curing 0.42 w/c & 3 d curing
0.42 w/c & 7 d curing 30
0.42 w/c & 7 d curing
25 0.50 w/c & 0 d curing
0.50 w/c & 0 d curing
0.50 w/c & 3 d curing 25 0.50 w/c & 3 d curing
20
0.50 w/c & 7 d curing 0.50 w/c & 7 d curing
20
15
15
10
10

5
5

0 (a) 0 (b)

0 100 200 300 400 0 100 200 300 400

Thermal cycling Thermal cycling

(a) (b)
Figure 7. The percentage of bonding strength decreases as the number of thermal cycles increases:
Figure 7. The
(a) MSM and percentage
(b) RSM. of bonding strength decreases as the number of thermal cycles increases:
(a) MSM and (b) RSM.
In addition, Figure 7b shows that the percent reduction in RSM bonding strength
4.decreases
Conclusionsas the mortar’s early curing time increases. This suggests that early curing is
beneficial to RSMmanufactured
In this study, bonding strength
sandunder a weathering
was used to replace effect. Moreover,
the natural the RSM
river sand has a
in mortar
greater reduction in the bonding strength after experiencing different thermal cycles
used in external wall tile structures. The effect of thermal cycling and curing age on the when
the w/c strength
bonding is relatively high. This
of cement means
mortar thatmanufactured
using a higher water-cement
sand wasratio will cause the RSM
explored.
to lose water in the weathering environment and form more pores, resulting in a decrease
When the water-cement ratio and curing age are constant, the compressive strength
in bonding strength [12,43–45]. In contrast, for the MSM samples, it can be concluded
of MSM is always higher than that of RSM. However, under the same curing conditions,
that there is no direct relationship between curing time and the degradation of bonding
the bonding strength of RSM is always higher than that of MSM, indicating that its bond-
strength under thermal cycling. In other words, under the same thermal cycling conditions,
ing strength is not proportional to the compressive strength of the mortar. The weathering
the bonding strength of samples with longer curing times will not vary proportionally.
effect will significantly reduce the bonding strength of the exterior wall structure, but un-
Therefore, in the case of the weathering effect, early curing does not appear to be the only
der the same number of thermal cycles, the bonding strength of RSM is always higher
dominant factor affecting the bonding strength. It is worth noting that after more than
than that of MSM, and the impact of thermal cycles on RSM is greater than that on MSM.
After 400 cycles, the percentage decrease in the bonding strength of the MSM sample
ranged from 18.62% to 30.86%. In addition, the degradation of MSM bonding strength
under thermal cycling is not directly related to curing time, and excessive curing may be
detrimental to the development of MSM bonding strength in weathered environments.
Buildings 2024, 14, 783 10 of 12

200 thermal cycles, the MSM samples cured for 3 days had the lowest reduction in bonding
strength. This phenomenon indicates that over-curing may be harmful to the development
of MSM bonding strength in weathered environments.

4. Conclusions
In this study, manufactured sand was used to replace the natural river sand in mortar
used in external wall tile structures. The effect of thermal cycling and curing age on the
bonding strength of cement mortar using manufactured sand was explored.
When the water-cement ratio and curing age are constant, the compressive strength of
MSM is always higher than that of RSM. However, under the same curing conditions, the
bonding strength of RSM is always higher than that of MSM, indicating that its bonding
strength is not proportional to the compressive strength of the mortar. The weathering
effect will significantly reduce the bonding strength of the exterior wall structure, but under
the same number of thermal cycles, the bonding strength of RSM is always higher than
that of MSM, and the impact of thermal cycles on RSM is greater than that on MSM. After
400 cycles, the percentage decrease in the bonding strength of the MSM sample ranged from
18.62% to 30.86%. In addition, the degradation of MSM bonding strength under thermal
cycling is not directly related to curing time, and excessive curing may be detrimental to
the development of MSM bonding strength in weathered environments.

Author Contributions: Data curation, H.P., C.Z. and D.Z.; Formal analysis, W.Y. and H.Y.; Fund-
ing acquisition, H.C.; Methodology, H.C. and D.Z.; Validation, H.P.; Writing—original draft, H.Y.;
Writing—review & editing, H.C., C.Z. and D.Z. All authors have read and agreed to the published
version of the manuscript.
Funding: We sincerely appreciate the funding support from National Key Research and Development
Program of China (No.: 2022YFC3800903) and Shenzhen Metro Group Co., Ltd. (No.: SZDT-JSZX-
ZC-2020-0022).
Data Availability Statement: Data is contained within the article.
Conflicts of Interest: Authors Weiwei Yang and Chaohui Zhang were employed by the company
Shenzhen Metro Group Co., Ltd. The remaining authors declare that the research was conducted
in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential
conflict of interest.

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