Articles Section

Journal of Evidence-Based Psychotherapies,

Vol. 23, No. 2, September 2023, 79-98.

10.24193/jebp.2023.2.11

PROCRASTINATION AMONG ADULTS: THE ROLE

OF SELF-DOUBT, FEAR OF THE NEGATIVE
EVALUATION, AND IRRATIONAL/RATIONAL BELIEFS
Erdinç Duru1*, Murat Balkis2, and Sibel Duru3
1
Pamukkale University, Turkey, [email protected]
2
Pamukkale University, Turkey, [email protected]
3
Pamukkale University, Turkey, [email protected]

Abstract
Procrastination is often associated with negative outcomes such as poor
performance and well-being. Theoretical models suggest that individuals
with an uncertain self-concept may be more prone to procrastination due to
their fear of failing to meet the required standard. To investigate this issue
from a cognitive perspective, a cross-sectional study was conducted to
examine the relationships among self-doubt, fear of negative evaluation,
procrastination, and rational/irrational beliefs. The study involved 344 highly
educated adults (65.4% female, M= 37.51 years, SD = 8.53, range 21-63).
Participants completed a questionnaire booklet that included several
measures, including the Self-doubt Scale, the Procrastination Scale, the Fear
of Negative Evaluation Scale, and the Irrational/Rational Beliefs Scale. The
findings from the mediation analysis indicate that the influence of self-doubt
on procrastination is partially mediated by fear of negative evaluation.
Furthermore, the indirect effect of self-doubt on procrastination through the
mediation of fear of negative evaluation is contingent upon the level of
irrational beliefs. These results suggest that irrational beliefs may exacerbate
the detrimental impact of self-doubt on procrastination by amplifying the
role of fear of negative evaluation. Furthermore, the strength of the direct
effect of self-doubt on procrastination depends on the level of rational belief,
indicating that rational belief may serve as a protective variable in the
relationship between self-doubt and procrastination. The present findings
underline interventions to strengthen individuals' rational beliefs and modify
their irrational beliefs, which can play a fundamental role in overcoming
procrastination in the adult population.

* Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Prof. Dr. Erdinç DURU,
Pamukkale University, Faculty of Education, Department of Psychological Counseling and Guidance,
20070 Kinikli-Denizli/Turkey.
Phone: +90 (258) 296 10 54, Fax: +90(258) 296 12 00
Email: [email protected]

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Keywords: procrastination, self-doubt, fear of negative evaluation,

irrational/rational beliefs, adults

Procrastination has attracted attention as a research topic in many

fields due to its negative effect on the psychological health and performance
of the individual. Procrastination, which includes actions and behaviors that
negatively affect productivity, can be seen frequently in the normal and
student population. For example, Harriott and Ferrari (1996) reported that 15-
20% of adults feel uncomfortable because of their procrastination. Hen and
Goroshit (2018), on the other hand, found that 25% of respondents (their age
ranged from 26 to 70) reported high procrastination in four or more life
domains and 40% in one to three life domains. Previous studies have shown
that procrastination is associated with stress (Sirois, 2007, 2014), maladaptive
coping style, acute health problems, lack of health-supportive behaviors
(Sirois, 2007, 2015), low overall health satisfaction (Codinaet al.,2020), time
orientation (Ferrari & Díaz-Morales, 2007) as well as sleep disturbance,
insomnia, depression, tension and fatigue (Hairston & Shpiltalni, 2016).
Although there have been numerous studies examining procrastination
among university students (Steel, 2007), there is a relative dearth of research on this
topic in adult populations. Steel's (2007) meta-analytic and theoretical review of
procrastination aimed to provide a comprehensive overview of the literature on this
behavior, focusing on identifying key factors associated with procrastination. The
study analyzed over 691 studies, examining a wide range of variables, including
personality traits, motivational factors, and cognitive and affective processes. While
Steel (2007) did analyze the effect of age on procrastination at the group level, the
results were not statistically significant, likely due to range restriction, as the sample
had an average age of 21.8 with a standard deviation of 4.6, suggesting a
homogeneity of age that may have hindered the detection of age-related differences
in procrastination. Therefore, there is a pressing need for further research on
procrastination in adult populations beyond the university context. Although some
studies have investigated the prevalence and types of procrastination behaviors in
adult samples (Díaz-Morales et al., 2006; Ferrari, O' Callaghan, & Newbegin, 2005;
Ferrari et al., 2009; Przepiorka et al., 2019), as well as the activities commonly
postponed (Hen & Goroshit, 2018) and certain demographic variables (Steel &
Ferrari, 2013), the underlying factors contributing to procrastination behavior in
adults require further investigation. Understanding these factors and the mechanisms
involved can provide valuable insights into the nature of procrastination behavior
and aid clinicians in helping adults who struggle with procrastination. Hence, this
study aims to explore the cognitive and behavioral variables that may contribute to

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procrastination in adults from a cognitive-behavioral perspective, building on

previous research conducted on procrastination in university samples.

The initial explanations for the occurrence of procrastination were made by

clinicians based on their clinical observations (Ferrari et al., 1995). For example,
Burka and Yuen (2008) explained the occurrence of procrastination behavior by
basing it on parents' faulty parenting practices. Children who grow up with faulty
parenting practices struggle to gain the appreciation of others. Over time, this need
for approval can become entrenched and easily turn into a fear of failure. However,
based on their clinical observations, Burka and Yuen (2008) also explained the
occurrence of procrastination based on self-concept. According to Burka and Yuen
(2008), individuals with a high level of procrastination base their self-worth on
experiences of success and failure. These individuals believe that their sense of
worthiness is a reflection of their ability to complete a task successfully. When they
fail at something, they do not only think they have failed at that work, they also see
themselves as unsuccessful individuals. These people have a strong fear of being
perceived as inadequate by others or feeling inadequate (Burka & Yuen, 2008). As
a natural consequence of these and similar considerations, individuals who doubt
their abilities and performance to accomplish a task experience an intense fear of
failure. Herein, procrastination has a protective function for these individuals in
order not to damage their belief that they are successful. Similarly, Ferrari et al.
(1995) state that if a person has doubts about his or her ability to accomplish a task,
this doubt may increase the likelihood of experiencing a fear of failure, which
increases the risk of injury to the ego. Therefore, the individual may delay fulfilling
the required duties and responsibilities to protect his/her self from being hurt.
A number of studies have been conducted to test the afore-mentioned
explanations based on clinical observations that have shown that procrastination is
positively associated with fear of failure (Haghbin et al., 2012; Onwuegbuzie &
Collins, 2001; Özer et al., 2009; Schouwenburg, 1992; Solomon & Rothblum, 1984;
Steel, 2007) and negatively correlated with self-worth (Dinnel et al., 2002; Feick &
Rhodewalt, 1997; Ferrari, 2000; Ferrari & Diaz-Morales, 2007; Pychyl et al., 2002).
For example, Feick and Rhodewalt (1997) stated that individuals who avoided facing
an unsuccessful situation by exhibiting procrastination behavior in situations where
there was a possibility of failure had higher self-esteem than those who did not use
any self-handicapping strategy. In another study, Duru and Balkis (2014) reported
that the undergraduates who had self-doubt postponed their academic duties and
responsibilities. Finally, Balkis and Duru (2019) found that the relationship between
self-doubt and procrastination was partially mediated by fear of failure.
In sum, existing research and theoretical explanations agree that self-
evaluation and fear of failure play a critical role in the occurrence of procrastination.
However, previous studies examined the direct predictive power of self-evaluation
and fear of failure on procrastination separately, and the functioning of these two

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variables in procrastination was not sufficiently tested together. To the best

knowledge of the researchers, there is only one study in the existing literature
investigating the association between procrastination, self-doubt and fear of failure,
and this study was conducted only on university students (Balkis & Duru, 2019).
Therefore, it remains unclear whether the theoretical explanations for the formation
and functioning of procrastination also apply to the adult sample. Another important
point to be clarified is the relationship between procrastination and the main source
of the fear of failure. In the current literature, some authors have emphasized that the
fear of failure is fed by the fear of negative evaluation (Burkan and Yuen, 2008;
Saddler and Buley, 1999; Steel, 2007). For example, Burka and Yuen (2008) state
that procrastination stems from the fear of being judged based on one's performance.
Similar to this explanation, Saddler and Buley (1999) argue that negative evaluation
anxieties form the basis of fear of failure. In the light of these explanations, one might
expect that the fear of negative evaluation plays a role in the relationship between
self-doubt and procrastination. Indeed, previous studies have suggested that
procrastination is associated with the fear of negative evaluation (Bui, 2007; Steel,
2007). In order to clarify this uncertainty, the association of procrastination with self-
doubt and the fear of negative evaluation will be tested in an adult sample in this
study.

Rational Emotional Behavior Therapy (REBT) and Procrastination

According to REBT, people are born with the potential for rational and
irrational beliefs. Rational beliefs include ways of thinking that help achieve the
goals chosen for happiness and sustaining life while irrational beliefs include
thoughts that interfere with achieving goals and confusing work. REBT assumes that
our beliefs mediate the relationship between the events we experience and our
emotions and behaviors (Davit et al., 2010). It also conceptualizes irrational beliefs
as a cognitive fragility factor and rational beliefs as a resilience factor. Addressing
procrastination in the REBT perspective, Ellis and Knaus (1977) stated that irrational
beliefs played a key role in the occurrence of procrastination. They stated that self-
downing, low frustration tolerance, and hostility beliefs played an important part in
the occurrence of procrastination. They also reported that the absolute
demandingness of individuals with procrastination to do everything well prevented
them from doing their duties or responsibilities on time. In this vein, REBT proposes
that the core irrational belief that drives procrastination is the belief that "I must do
well" to prove that "I am a worthwhile person" (Beswick et al., 1988, p. 208).
Regarding the function of procrastination, Ellis and Knaus (1977) state that
procrastination has a defensive behavior. As a defensive behavior, procrastination
reflects the fear of failure and serves as a protective function so that the individual
does not face the fear. In this context, Rorer (1983) states that the irrational belief
leading to procrastination is that "you must do well, and that if you don't, you're no

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good, it is better to procrastinate than to risk the possibility of finding out that you
are worthless" (p. 1). Also, there are a great number of studies attempted to
investigate the association between procrastination and irrational beliefs (Balkis &
Duru 2018, 2019; Beswick et al. 1988; Bridges & Roig 1997; Ferrari & Emmons
1994; Harrington 2005; Steel 2007). The common finding of these studies is that
procrastination is positively related to irrational beliefs. For example, Balkis and
Duru (2019) examined the relationship between self-doubt, rational and irrational
beliefs, fear of failure, and procrastination among Turkish undergraduate students.
The findings indicate that that irrational beliefs moderated the indirect predictive
power of self-doubt on procrastination via fear of failure.
In the existing literature, many studies have examined the relationship
between procrastination and irrational beliefs in the literature, the relationship
between rational beliefs and procrastination has not been adequately addressed. In
addition, REBT conceptualizes rational beliefs as a cognitive resilience factor (David
et al., 2010). Previous findings, in the college sample, have shown that rational
beliefs play a moderating role in the relationship between procrastination and
academic satisfaction (Balkis, 2015), self-downing (Balkis & Duru, 2018), and fear
of failure (Balkis & Duru, 2019). However, whether rational beliefs play a similar
role in the adult population remains unclear. Therefore, clarification of this
ambiguity may contribute to the theoretical explanations of REBT procrastination
and, at the same time, provide clinicians with important data in the process of helping
adults suffering from procrastination.

Current Study

This study aims to achieve two main objectives. Firstly, we will examine the
role of fear of negative evaluation in the relationship between self-doubt and
procrastination. Therefore, our study aims to provide additional evidence for the
theoretical explanations of Burka and Yuen (2008) and Ferrari et al. (1995), who
argue that individuals who doubt their abilities and performance in completing a task
experience intense fear of failure, which leads them to postpone required tasks and
responsibilities. Previous studies in the existing literature have shown that
procrastination is associated with fear of failure (Haghbin et al., 2012; Özer et al.,
2009; Steel, 2007) and self-doubt (Duru & Balkis, 2014; Balkis & Duru, 2018,
2019). However, Balkis and Duru (2019) reported that fear of failure plays a partial
mediating role in the association between self-doubt and procrastination in university
samples. Although Burka and Yuen (2008) and Ferrari et al. (1995) emphasized the
role of fear of failure in the association between both variables, Saddler and Buley
(1999) argued that negative evaluation anxieties formed the basis of fear of failure.
Similarly, Steel (2007) explained that fear of failure was related to the anxiety of
negative evaluation, while Burka and Yuen (2008) stated that procrastination
stemmed from the fear of being judged on one's performance. Nevertheless, previous

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findings in the literature indicated that procrastination was associated with the fear
of negative evaluation (Çelik & Odacı, 2015; Bui, 2007; Sadler & Buley, 1999).
Based on these theoretical explanations and research findings, our first hypothesis is
that self-doubt is associated with fear of negative evaluation and, in turn, fear of
negative evaluation is associated with procrastination.
Secondly, we aimed to examine whether the indirect predictive power of
self-doubt on procrastination via the fear of negative evaluation varies based on the
level of rational and irrational beliefs. Previous studies have shown that self-doubt
and procrastination are positively associated with irrational beliefs (Ferrari &
Emmons, 1994; Harrington, 2005; Steel, 2007) and negatively associated with
rational beliefs (Balkis, 2015; Balkis & Duru, 2018, 2019, 2021). However, these
findings have shown that the indirect predictive power of self-doubt on
procrastination through fear of failure varies depending on the level of rational and
irrational belief. Drawing on previous research, it is plausible to expect that both
rational and irrational beliefs have a significant impact on the relationship between
self-doubt, the fear of negative evaluation, and procrastination. Therefore, the second
hypothesis of this study posits that the indirect effect of self-doubt on procrastination
via the fear of negative evaluation will be more pronounced when irrational beliefs
are high. Finally, the third hypothesis predicts that the indirect effect of self-doubt
on procrastination via the fear of negative evaluation will be weaker in situations
where rational beliefs are high..

Method

Participants
The current study consists of 344 adults. Among the participants, 119 were
men (34.6 %), and 225 were women (65.4%). The mean age was 37.51 years (SD =
8.53, range 21-63); 73.9% were married, and 26.1 % were single. Regarding
education level, 68.3 % of the participants had a bachelor's degree, 24.7 % had a
master's degree, and 7% had a doctorate degree. We recruited these highly educated
participants through professional forums. We posted research-related
announcements in the professional forums (Accountants, dentists, engineers,
physicians, social workers, and teachers) through personal contact. The participants
interested in the study contacted the researchers via email and received a link to the
survey. The survey contains the informed consent form, demographic information,
Turkish version of the questionnaires used in the current study. We declared that
participation in this study was completely voluntary and they could withdraw from
the study at any time.

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Instruments
A personal information form was prepared to determine the participants'
personal information such as gender, age, marital status, and education level.
The levels of procrastination among participants were assessed using the
Pure Procrastination Scale (PPS) developed by Steel (2010). The PPS consists of 12
items and is rated on a five-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 (Disagree) to 5
(Agree). An example item from the scale is "Even tasks that only require sitting
down and doing them tend to remain undone for days." The psychometric properties
of the PPS have been examined previously for a Turkish sample by Balkis and Duru
(2019), who reported a high level of internal consistency (α=.92). In the present
study, the internal consistency coefficient for the self-doubt scale was α=.89.
The levels of self-doubt among participants were measured using the Self-
Doubt subscale of the Subjective Overachievement Scale (Oleson et al., 2000) in the
present study. This eight-item scale is rated on a six-point Likert-type scale, ranging
from 1 (Disagree very much) to 6 (Agree very much). An example item is "I
sometimes find myself wondering if I have the ability to succeed at important
activities." Duru and Balkis (2014) evaluated the psychometric properties of the Self-
Doubt scale for a Turkish sample, reporting an acceptable level of internal
consistency with a Cronbach's alpha of 0.78. For the current sample, Cronbach's
alpha coefficient for the self-doubt scale was α = .86.
The levels of irrational and rational beliefs among participants were
measured using the Abbreviated Version of the Attitude and Belief Scale 2 (AV-
ABS 2; Hyland et al., 2014). The AV-ABS 2 includes 24 items that assess both
irrational and rational beliefs, measuring all four irrational belief processes (DEM,
AWF, LFT, and GES) and four rational belief processes (PRE, N-AWF, HFT, and
UA). Participants rated their agreement with each statement on a 5-point Likert-type
scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). Duru and Balkis
(2021) tested the psychometric properties of the AV-ABS 2 for the Turkish sample
and reported acceptable internal consistency coefficients for the total irrational
beliefs scale (α = .84) and total rational beliefs scale (α = .85). For the current sample,
the Cronbach's alpha coefficients for the full irrational beliefs scale were α = .82, and
α = .83 for the full rational beliefs scale.
The levels of fear of negative evaluation among participants were assessed
using the Brief Fear of Negative Evaluation Scale (BFNE; Leary, 1983). The BFNE
consists of 12 items rated on a five-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (Disagree) to
5 (Agree). Çetin, Doğan, and Sapmaz (2010) evaluated the psychometric properties
of the BFNE for Turkish samples and reported that confirmatory factor analyses
confirmed a single factor structure of the BFNE with 11 items. A sample item is
“When I am talking to someone, I worry about what they may be thinking about me.”

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Cronbach's alpha coefficients for the BFNE were α = .84, and the test-retest
reliability coefficient for the BFNE was .82 (Çetin et al., 2010). In the present
sample, Cronbach's alpha coefficient for the BFNE was α = .92.

Statistical Analyses
We analyzed data in four steps using SPSS 22.0 and Hayes's (2013) SPSS
macro-PROCESS. In the first step, we conducted correlational analyses to test the
link between self-doubt, fear of negative evaluation, irrational and rational beliefs,
and procrastination. In the second step, we tested whether the fear of negative
evaluation mediated the relations between self-doubt and procrastination by using
Hayes's (2013) SPSS macro-PROCESS (Model 4). In the third and fourth steps, we
tested whether the indirect predictive power of self-doubt on procrastination via fear
of negative evaluation is dependent on a level of irrational (Model 7) and rational
beliefs (Model 1) using Hayes's (2013) SPSS macro-PROCESS. Finally, we utilized
a bootstrapped confidence interval (CI) to test whether the indirect effects of self-
doubt on procrastination were significant via fear of negative evaluation at specific
values of irrational and rational beliefs. We used R2 med to assess mediating effect size
(Fairchild et al., 2009). Finally, the variance inflation factor (VIF) and tolerance
scores were examined to assess the independence of errors and multicollinearity
(VIF scores <5 and tolerance scores > .20 = acceptable; Hair et al., 2010).

Results

Preliminary Analyses
A post hoc power analysis was conducted using G*Power 3 (Faul et al.,
2007) to estimate statistical power. The results showed that with a sample size of
344, the study had a statistical power of .85, .99, and 1.0 for detecting small, medium,
and large effect sizes, respectively.
Next, we conducted correlational analyses to test whether procrastination is
related to self-doubt, fear of negative evaluation, and irrational and rational beliefs.
The findings indicated that procrastination was positively correlated with self-doubt,
fear of negative evaluation, and irrational beliefs while it was negatively associated
with rational beliefs. Self-doubt was positively related to fear of negative evaluation
and irrational beliefs whereas it was negatively correlated with rational beliefs. Also,
the fear of negative evaluation was positively associated with irrational beliefs and
negatively related to rational beliefs. Finally, correlational analyses demonstrated
that irrational beliefs were adversely related to rational beliefs (Table-1).

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Table 1. Descriptive statistics, collinearity statistics, and correlational analysis (N = 344)

1 2 3 4 5

1-Procrastination - .62** .43** .25** -.31**

2-Self-Doubt - .56** .34** -.27**

3-Fear of Negative Evaluation - .49** -.33**

4-Irrational Beliefs - -.25**

5-Rational Beliefs -

Mean 27.24 19.38 29.45 34.74 46.95

Standard Deviation 9.71 6.60 9.37 7.47 6.77

Skewness .760 .444 .330 -.001 -.395

Kurtosis .433 -.261 -.228 -.402 .136

Tolerance .675 .569 .743 .872

VIF 1.481 1.759 1.345 1.147

**p<.001

Mediation Model
We utilized Hayes's (2013) SPSS macro-PROCESS (model 4, Table 2,
Figure 1) to test the mediation role of the fear of negative evaluation in the
relationship between self-doubt and procrastination. The findings of the mediation
analyses indicated that (a) self-doubt directly predicted the fear of negative
evaluation (B = .78, p<.001) and procrastination (B= .81, p<.001), (b) the fear of
negative evaluation directly predicted procrastination (B = .13, p = .014), and self-
doubt indirectly predicted procrastination (ab=.10, SE=.05, 95% confidence interval
[CI]=.01, .20) via fear of negative evaluation. The point estimate of R2 med was .18
(95%CI = .11, .25), suggesting that the value of R2 med was larger than 18 % of the
variance in procrastination, which was attributable to the indirect predictive effect of
self-doubt through the fear of negative evaluation. The point estimate of R2 med was
considered as a medium effect size. Further, the 95% confidence interval of R2med
revealed that at least 11 % of the variance of procrastination was attributable to self-
doubt mediated via the fear of negative evaluation, and up to 25.4 % of the variance
in procrastination was explained by the mediating effect. These findings briefly
indicated that the fear of negative evaluation partly mediated the relationship
between self-doubt and procrastination, with an effect size from medium to large.

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Figure 1. The mediating role of fear of negative evaluation

Table 2. Moderated mediation statistics (N = 344)

Outcome: Fear of Negative Evaluation (Model 4)
Predictor variables B 95 % CI SE t Model R2
Self-Doubt .78 [ .66 - .91] .06 11.02*** .31***
Outcome: Procrastination
Self-Doubt .81 [ .66 .95] .07 10.99*** .40***
Fear of Negative Evaluation .13 [ .02 .23] .05 2.46*
Outcome: Fear of Negative Evaluation (Model 7 and
Model 8)
Self-Doubt .59 [ .47 .72] .06 9.35*** .42***
Irrational Beliefs .43 [ .32 .54] .06 7.79***
Self-Doubt x Irrational Beliefs .02 [ .001 .03] .01 2.05*
Self-Doubt .71 [ .58 .84] .06 10.96*** .35**
Rational Beliefs -.27 [- .39 -.14] .06 -4.21***
Self-Doubt x Rational Beliefs 001 [- .01 .02] .01 .16ns
Conditional indirect effect analysis Outcome: Procrastination
Irrational Beliefs ab Boot SE BootLLCI BootULCI
Low .06 .03 .01 .13
Med .08 .04 .01 .15
High .09 .04 .01 .18
ns
p> .05, *p<.05, ***p<.001

Moderated Mediation Model

We performed moderated mediation analysis to test whether self-doubt had
an indirect effect on procrastination via fear of negative evaluation and this indirect
effect was subject to moderation of irrational and rational beliefs. We tested the
moderation role of irrational beliefs using Hayes' (2013) PROCESS macro (Model
7) as a single instance of moderated mediation.

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Initially, we tested the moderation role of irrational beliefs as a single

instance of moderated mediation using Hayes's (2013) PROCESS macro (Model 7).
The findings of the moderated mediation analyses demonstrated that self-doubt (B =
.59, p < .001), irrational beliefs (B = .43, p < .001), and the interaction of self-doubt
and irrational beliefs (B = .02, p = .041) predicted the fear of negative evaluation.
Additionally, procrastination was predicted by self-doubt (B= .81, p<.001) and the
fear of negative evaluation (B = .13, p = .014). Also, we tested whether the indirect
predictive effect of self-doubt on procrastination through fear of negative evaluation
depended on irrational beliefs using the bootstrap procedure (5000). The results
indicated that the indirect predictive effect of self-doubt on procrastination via fear
of negative evaluation was more powerful when the level of irrational beliefs was
higher (ab =.09, SE = .04, 95%of CI = .01, .19) rather than medium (ab =.08, SE =
.04, 95%of CI = .01, .15) or low (ab =.06, SE = .03, 95%of CI = .01, .13). These
results support the claim that irrational beliefs play a vulnerability factor in the
relationship between self-doubt and procrastination (Table-3).

Table 3. Moderation statistics (N =344)

Outcome: Procrastination (Model 1)

Self-Doubt .83 [ .70 .95] .06 13.09*** .42***
Rational Beliefs -.20 [-.33 -.08] .06 -3.32**
Self-Doubt x Rational Beliefs -.02 [ -.03 -.003] .01 -2.41*
Conditional direct effect analysis Outcome: Procrastination
Rational Beliefs b Boot SE BootLLCI BootULCI
Low .95 .07 .80 1.09
Med .83 .06 .70 .95
High .71 .09 .54 .88

*p< .05, **p<.01, ***p<.001

Next, we tested the moderation role of rational beliefs as a single instance of

moderated mediation using Hayes's (2013) PROCESS macro (Model 7 and 8, Table
2). The findings of the moderated mediation analyses showed that the indirect
predictive power of self-doubt on procrastination via fear of negative evaluation did
not differ across the level of rational beliefs. Then, we conducted moderation
analyses using Hayes's (2013) PROCESS macro (Model 1) to examine whether the
rational beliefs acted as a moderator variable in the relationship between self-doubt
and procrastination. The findings of the moderation analysis indicated that
procrastination was predicted by self-doubt (B= .83, p<.001), rational belief (B= -
.20, p = .001), and the interaction of self-doubt and rational beliefs (B = -.02, SE =
01. ∆R2 = .01, p = 016). In addition, simple slope analysis demonstrated that the
association between self-doubt and procrastination was stronger when the level of
rational belief was at a low level (b = .95, p <.001) rather than a medium level (b =
.83, p <.001) or a high level (b = .71, p <.001). These findings suggest that the direct

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predictive effect of self-doubt on procrastination increases or decreases depending

on the level of rational belief (Table 3, Figure 2).

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2
Procrastination

0
Rational
-0.2 Beliefs
high
-0.4
med
-0.6
low
-0.8
low med high

Self-Doubt

Figure 2. The moderating role of rational beliefs

Discussion

We conducted a cross-sectional study to ascertain the mechanisms

underlying the relationship between self-doubt and procrastination. The present
findings revealed that the fear of negative evaluation might have a mediating
function in the relationship between self-doubt and procrastination. Also, the
moderated mediation model revealed that the indirect predictive effect of self-doubt
on procrastination via fear of negative evaluation varied depending on different
irrational/rational belief levels.
Regarding the first hypothesis, mediation analysis indicates that self-doubt
has a significant direct effect on procrastination, but this effect is partially mediated
by fear of negative evaluation. Specifically, higher levels of self-doubt are associated
with more procrastination, and this relationship is partially explained by increased
fear of negative evaluation. The current finding suggested that the fear of negative
evaluation was a crucial factor that mediated the relationship between self-doubt and
procrastination. In this sense, the present findings support previous evidence in that
procrastination is associated with self-doubt (Duru & Balkis, 2014; Balkis & Duru,
2018, 2019) and the fear of negative evaluation (Bui, 2007; Sadler & Buley, 1999).
In addition, Senecal, Lavoie, and Koestner (1997) stated that the expectation of being

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evaluated on a task, compared to not expecting to be evaluated on a task, was more

likely to delay starting or completing the task. In this vein, Burka and Yuen (2008)
suggested that people with a high level of procrastination tended to be afraid of being
judged according to their performance. They believe their self-worth will suffer if
they do not complete their tasks satisfactorily. The current findings suggested that
self-doubt affected the fear of negative evaluation and in turn, the fear of negative
evaluation influenced procrastination. In other words, if an individual has doubts
about his or her competence in completing a task, this may activate the fear of
negative evaluation and increased fear of negative evaluation may contribute to
delaying the current task.
Consistent with the second hypothesis, the findings of the moderated
mediation indicated that the strength of the indirect effect of self-doubt on
procrastination, via fear of negative evaluation, varies depending on the level of
irrational beliefs. Specifically, when individuals have higher levels of irrational
beliefs, the indirect effect of self-doubt on procrastination through fear of negative
evaluation is stronger, suggesting that irrational beliefs may amplify the negative
impact of self-doubt on procrastination through fear of negative evaluation. The
study suggests that individuals who doubt their ability to successfully complete a
task may experience increased fear of negative evaluation, leading to a greater
likelihood of procrastination. This is especially true when the individual perceives
the situation as catastrophic, intolerable, and an indicator of their self-worth. These
findings are consistent with previous research linking procrastination to irrational
beliefs (Balkis & Duru, 2018, 2019; Steel, 2007), self-doubt, and fear of failure
(Balkis & Duru, 2018, 2019). Specifically, irrational beliefs were found to moderate
the direct effect of self-doubt on fear of failure, as well as the indirect effect of self-
doubt on procrastination through fear of failure (Balkis & Duru, 2019). These
findings support the Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT) theory, which
suggests that irrational beliefs serve as vulnerability factors that contribute to
maladaptive emotions (such as fear of negative evaluation) and behaviors (such as
procrastination).
Finally, the moderated mediation model indicated that the strength of the
direct effect of self-doubt on procrastination varies depending on the level of rational
belief. When individuals have higher levels of rational belief, the direct effect of self-
doubt on procrastination weakens, suggesting that rational belief may serve as a
protective variable in the relationship between self-doubt and procrastination. In
other words, when an individual experiences self-doubt about their ability to
complete a task successfully, it is less likely that they will postpone starting or
completing the task if they (a) realistically evaluate the situation, (b) perceive it as
tolerable, and (c) still maintain a sense of self-worth and self-love. These findings
provide further support for the Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT) theory,
which suggests that rational beliefs function as cognitive resilience factors and lead
to adaptive behaviors (Davit et al., 2010). The study also aligns with recent research

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that indicates rational beliefs are negatively associated with self-doubt and
procrastination (Balkis & Duru, 2018, 2019). In essence, the study suggests that
having rational beliefs can increase an individual's resilience and enable them to
engage in adaptive behaviors, such as being less likely to delay, in the face of a
stressful situation, such as self-doubt.

Conclusion

To sum up, this study highlights two mechanisms that elucidate the link
between self-doubt and procrastination among well-educated adults. Firstly,
consistent with Ferrari et al.'s (1995) proposal that the fear of failure mediates the
link between self-doubt and procrastination, the present findings suggest that self-
doubt leads to a fear of negative evaluation, which predicts procrastination.
Secondly, the study supports REBT's assumptions regarding the roles of rational and
irrational beliefs. According to REBT, irrational beliefs act as cognitive vulnerability
factors that result in maladaptive emotions and behaviors, while rational beliefs serve
as cognitive protective factors that promote adaptive behaviors. In this context, the
predictive effect of self-doubt on the fear of negative evaluation and the indirect
effect of self-doubt on procrastination via the fear of negative evaluation increase
when levels of irrational beliefs are high, whereas high levels of rational beliefs serve
as a protective factor against the predictive effect of self-doubt on procrastination.

Theoretical and Practical Implication

All in all, this study adds to the existing literature on procrastination by
shedding light on how and when self-doubt affects procrastination in adult
individuals. The study contributes to the literature by highlighting the mediating role
of the fear of negative evaluation in the relationship between self-doubt and
procrastination. The findings also support the REBT framework by demonstrating
the protective role of rational beliefs against procrastination and the negative effects
of self-doubt. This study provides a better understanding of the underlying
mechanisms of procrastination, which can inform future research on this topic.
In terms of practical implications, the findings suggest that self-doubt
influences procrastination through the fear of negative evaluation, especially when
levels of irrational beliefs are high. Additionally, the study suggests that the direct
effect of self-doubt on procrastination may be weakened when levels of rational
beliefs are high. Therefore, interventions aimed at reducing procrastination should
focus on addressing self-doubt and irrational beliefs. Helping individuals to develop
more rational and adaptive beliefs may lead to a decrease in procrastination
behaviors. Thus, clinicians should focus on challenging evaluative irrational beliefs
and encouraging rational beliefs to cope with procrastination stemming from self-

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doubt. Through this process, they can teach their clients to evaluate self-efficacy,
tolerance, and acceptance logically.
The present study has several limitations that should be taken into
consideration. Firstly, the use of a cross-sectional design precludes the establishment
of causal relationships between the variables. Future longitudinal studies are
recommended to gain a deeper understanding of the contributions of fear of negative
evaluation, irrational/rational beliefs, and self-doubt to the development of
procrastination. Additionally, the measurements employed in this study, namely self-
report questionnaires, are susceptible to biases such as social desirability or recall
bias. These limitations could have influenced the reported associations among the
variables. To address this, validated scales were utilized, and measures were taken
to ensure confidentiality and anonymity, fostering more candid responses.
Nevertheless, caution is advised when interpreting the results.
Secondly, the study sample exhibited limited diversity, with only 34.6%
male participants and a high level of education, potentially restricting the
generalizability of the findings. Therefore, it is important for future research to
replicate these findings with samples encompassing varying education levels to
enhance the generalizability of the results. Moreover, considering the specific
characteristics of the sample, it is crucial to recognize that different populations may
manifest differing levels of self-doubt, fear of negative evaluation, and irrational
beliefs. Replication studies involving diverse samples are warranted to enhance the
external validity of the findings. Finally, given the cross-sectional nature of our
study, it is imperative to acknowledge the possibility of reverse causality as a
plausible explanation for the observed relationships. Although we have investigated
the associations among self-doubt, fear of negative evaluation, rational and irrational
beliefs, and procrastination, it is conceivable that alternative explanations or
feedback loops may exist. Hence, conducting further longitudinal or experimental
research could aid in disentangling the direction of causality and providing a more
comprehensive understanding of these relationships.

Authors’ note

Declaration of interests: The authors declare no conflicts of interest with

respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Acknowledgements: The researchers would like to thank all the
participants who collaborated in this study.
Funding: None.

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