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45199_C000.fm Page i Tuesday, March 20, 2007 12:51 PM

HALF TITLE PAGE

SECOND EDITION

COMPOSITE
MATERIALS
DESIGN AND APPLICATIONS
45199_C000.fm Page ii Tuesday, March 20, 2007 12:51 PM
45199_C000.fm Page iii Tuesday, March 20, 2007 12:51 PM

TITLE PAGE
SECOND EDITION

COMPOSITE
MATERIALS
DESIGN AND APPLICATIONS

Daniel Gay
Suong V. Hoa

Boca Raton London New York

CRC Press is an imprint of the

Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
45199_C000.fm Page iv Tuesday, March 20, 2007 12:51 PM

CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300
Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742
© 2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business

No claim to original U.S. Government works

Printed in the United States of America on acid-free paper
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

International Standard Book Number-10: 1-4200-4519-9 (Hardcover)

International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-4200-4519-2 (Hardcover)

This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reprinted material is quoted
with permission, and sources are indicated. A wide variety of references are listed. Reasonable efforts have been made to
publish reliable data and information, but the author and the publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of
all materials or for the consequences of their use.

No part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced, transmitted, or utilized in any form by any electronic, mechanical, or
other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or in any informa-
tion storage or retrieval system, without written permission from the publishers.

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Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for
identification and explanation without intent to infringe.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Gay, Daniel, 1942-

[Matériaux composites. English]
Composite materials : design and applications / Daniel Gay and Suong V. Hoa. -- 2nd ed.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-1-4200-4519-2 (alk. paper)
1. Composite materials. I. Hoa, S. V. (Suong V.) II. Title.

TA418.9.C6G3913 2003
620.1’18--dc22 2007061450

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45199_C000.fm Page v Tuesday, March 20, 2007 12:51 PM

CONTENTS

PART I: PRINCIPLES OF CONSTRUCTION

1 Composite Materials, Interest, and Properties ......................................... 3
1.1 What Is Composite Material? 3
1.2 Fibers and Matrix 4
1.2.1 Fibers 4
1.2.2 Matrix Materials 7
1.3 What Can Be Made Using Composite Materials? 7
1.4 Typical Examples of Interest on the Use of Composite Materials 9
1.5 Examples on Replacing Conventional Solutions with Composites 9
1.6 Principal Physical Properties 9
2 Fabrication Processes ................................................................................... 17
2.1 Molding Processes 17
2.1.1 Contact Molding 17
2.1.2 Compression Molding 17
2.1.3 Molding with Vacuum 19
2.1.4 Resin Injection Molding 20
2.1.5 Molding by Injection of Premixed 20
2.1.6 Molding by Foam Injection 21
2.1.7 Molding of Components of Revolution 21
2.2 Other Forming Processes 22
2.2.1 Sheet Forming 22
2.2.2. Profile Forming 23
2.2.3 Stamp Forming 23
2.2.4 Preforming by Three-Dimensional Assembly 23
2.2.5 Cutting of Fabric and Trimming of Laminates 24
2.3 Practical Hints on Manufacturing Processes 24
2.3.1 Acronyms 24
2.3.2 Cost Comparison 27
3 Ply Properties ................................................................................................ 29
3.1 Isotropy and Anisotropy 29
3.1.1 Isotropic Materials 31
3.1.2 Anisotropic Material 32
3.2 Characteristics of the Reinforcement–Matrix Mixture 33
3.2.1 Fiber Mass Fraction 33
3.2.2 Fiber Volume Fraction 34
3.2.3 Mass Density of a Ply 34
3.2.4 Ply Thickness 35
3.3 Unidirectional Ply 35
3.3.1 Elastic Modulus 35

v
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vi  Composite Materials: Design and Applications

3.3.2 Ultimate Strength of a Ply 38

3.3.3 Examples 39
3.3.4 Examples of “High Performance” Unidirectional Plies 40
3.4 Woven Fabrics 41
3.4.1 Forms of Woven Fabric 41
3.4.2 Elastic Modulus of Fabric Layer 42
3.4.3 Examples of Balanced Fabrics/Epoxy 43
3.5 Mats and Reinforced Matrices 44
3.5.1 Mats 44
3.5.2 Summary Example of Glass/Epoxy Layers 45
3.5.3 Spherical Fillers 45
3.5.4 Other Reinforcements 46
3.6 Multidimensional Fabrics 48
3.7 Metal Matrix Composites 50
3.8 Tests 51
4 Sandwich Structures ..................................................................................... 53
4.1 What Is a Sandwich Structure? 53
4.2 Simplified Flexure 54
4.2.1 Stresses 54
4.2.2 Displacements 55
4.3 A Few Special Aspects 57
4.3.1 Comparison of Mass Based on Equivalent Flexural Rigidity (EI) 57
4.3.2 Buckling of Sandwich Structures 58
4.3.3 Other Types of Damage 59
4.4 Fabrication and Design Problems 60
4.4.1 Honeycomb: An Example of Core Material 60
4.4.2 Processing Aspects 61
4.4.3 Insertion of Attachment Pieces 63
4.4.4 Repair of Laminated Facings 63
4.5 Nondestructive Quality Control 63
5 Conception and Design ............................................................................... 69
5.1 Design of a Composite Piece 69
5.1.1 Guidelines for Values for Predesign 70
5.2 The Laminate 72
5.2.1 Unidirectional Layers and Fabrics 72
5.2.2 Importance of Ply Orientation 73
5.2.3 Code to Represent a Laminate 73
5.2.4 Arrangement of Plies 78
5.3 Failure of Laminates 80
5.3.1 Damages 80
5.3.2 Most Frequently Used Criterion: Hill–Tsai Failure Criterion 82
5.4 Sizing of the Laminate 85
5.4.1 Modulus of Elasticity. Deformation of a Laminate 85
5.4.2 Case of Simple Loading 86
5.4.3 Case of Complex Loading—Approximate Orientation Distribution
of a Laminate 90
5.4.4 Case of Complex Loading: Optimum Composition of a Laminate 100
5.4.5 Practical Remarks: Particularities of the Behavior of Laminates 108
6 Joining And Assembly................................................................................ 115
6.1 Riveting and Bolting 115
45199_C000.fm Page vii Tuesday, March 20, 2007 12:51 PM

Contents  vii

6.1.1 Principal Modes of Failure in Bolted Joints for Composite Materials 117
6.1.2 Recommended Values 117
6.1.3 Riveting 120
6.1.4 Bolting 120
6.2 Bonding 122
6.2.1 Adhesives Used 123
6.2.2 Geometry of the Bonded Joints 124
6.2.3 Sizing of Bonded Surfaces 125
6.2.4 Examples of Bonding 130
6.3 Inserts 131
7 Composite Materials and Aerospace Construction ............................. 135
7.1 Aircraft 135
7.1.1 Composite Components in Aircraft 135
7.1.2 Characteristics of Composites 136
7.1.3 A Few Remarks 138
7.1.4 Specific Aspects of Structural Resistance 139
7.1.5 Large Carriers 139
7.1.6 Regional Jets 146
7.1.7 Light Aircraft 147
7.1.8 Fighter Aircraft 148
7.1.9 Architecture of Composite Parts in Aircraft 151
7.1.10 Elements of Braking 158
7.1.11 The Future 159
7.2 Helicopters 161
7.2.1 The Situation 161
7.2.2 Composite Zones 162
7.2.3 Blades 162
7.2.4 Yoke Rotor 164
7.2.5 Other Composite Working Components 167
7.3 Propeller Blades for Airplanes 168
7.4 Turbine Blades in Composites 171
7.5 Space Applications 172
7.5.1 Satellites 173
7.5.2 Pressure Vessels 173
7.5.3 Nozzles 175
7.5.4 Other Composite Components 177
8 Composite Materials for Other Applications ........................................ 183
8.1 Composite Materials and the Manufacturing of Automobiles 183
8.1.1 Introduction 183
8.1.2 Evaluation and Evolution 183
8.1.3 Research and Development 189
8.2 Composites in Naval Construction 194
8.2.1 Competition 194
8.2.2 Ships 195
8.3 Sports and Recreation 197
8.3.1 Skis 197
8.3.2 Bicycles 199
8.4 Other Applications 199
8.4.1 Wind Turbines 199
8.4.2 Compressed Gas Bottles 201
8.4.3 Buggy Chassis 201
45199_C000.fm Page viii Tuesday, March 20, 2007 12:51 PM

viii  Composite Materials: Design and Applications

8.4.4 Tubes for Off-Shore Installations 201

8.4.5 Biomechanics Applications 203
8.4.6 Telepherique Cabin 203

PART II: MECHANICAL BEHAVIOR OF LAMINATED MATERIALS

9 Anisotropic Elastic Media .......................................................................... 207
9.1 Review of Notations 207
9.1.1 Continuum Mechanics 207
9.1.2 Number of Distinct ϕijk Terms 208
9.2 Orthotropic Materials 209
9.3 Transversely Isotropic Materials 210
10 Elastic Constants of Unidirectional Composites .................................. 213
10.1 Longitudinal Modulus E 213
10.2 Poisson Coefficient 215
10.3 Transverse Modulus Et 216
10.4 Shear Modulus Gt 218
10.5 Thermoelastic Properties 219
10.5.1 Isotropic Material: Recall 219
10.5.2 Case of Unidirectional Composite 219
10.5.3 Thermomechanical Behavior of a Unidirectional Layer 222
11 Elastic Constants of a Ply Along an Arbitrary Direction ................... 223
11.1 Compliance Coefficients 223
11.2 Stiffness Coefficients 228
11.3 Case of Thermomechanical Loading 229
11.3.1 Compliance Coefficients 229
11.3.2 Stiffness Coefficients 232
12 Mechanical Behavior of Thin Laminated Plates ................................... 235
12.1 Laminate with Midplane Symmetry 235
12.1.1 Membrane Behavior 235
12.1.2 Apparent Moduli of the Laminate 239
12.1.3 Consequence: Practical Determination of a Laminate Subject
to Membrane Loading 239
12.1.4 Flexure Behavior 244
12.1.5 Consequence: Practical Determination for a Laminate
Subject to Flexure 249
12.1.6 Simplified Calculation for Flexure 249
12.1.7 Case of Thermomechanical Loading 251
12.2 Laminate without Midplane Symmetry 254
12.2.1 Coupled Membrane–Flexure Behavior 254
12.2.2 Case of Thermomechanical Loading 255

PART III: JUSTIFICATIONS, COMPOSITE BEAMS, AND THICK PLATES

13 Elastic Coefficients...................................................................................... 259
13.1 Elastic Coefficients in an Orthotropic Material 259
13.2 Elastic Coefficients for a Transversely Isotropic Material 262
13.2.1 Rotation about an Orthotropic Transverse Axis 264
13.3 Case of a Ply 270
45199_C000.fm Page ix Tuesday, March 20, 2007 12:51 PM

Contents  ix

14 The Hill–Tsai Failure Criterion ................................................................ 273

14.1 Isotropic Material: Von Mises Criterion 273
14.2 Orthotropic Material: Hill–Tsai Criterion 277
14.2.1 Preliminary Remarks 277
14.2.2 Case of a Transversely Isotropic Material 277
14.2.3 Case of a Unidirectional Ply Under In-Plane Loading 279
14.3 Variation of Resistance of a Unidirectional Ply
with Respect to the Direction of Loading 280
14.3.1 Tension and Compression Resistance 280
14.3.2 Shear Strength 282
15 Composite Beams in Flexure ................................................................... 283
15.1 Flexure of Symmetric Beams with Isotropic Phases 283
15.1.1 Degrees of Freedom 284
15.1.2 Perfect Bonding between the Phases 287
15.1.3 Equilibrium Relations 288
15.1.4 Constitutive Relations 290
15.1.5 Technical Formulation 292
15.1.6 Energy Interpretation 297
15.1.7 Extension to the Dynamic Case 299
15.2 Case of Any Cross Section (Asymmetric) 301
16 Composite Beams in Torsion ................................................................... 307
16.1 Uniform Torsion 307
16.1.1 Torsional Degree of Freedom 307
16.1.2 Constitutive Relation 308
16.1.3 Determination of the Function Φ(y, z) 309
16.1.4 Energy Interpretation 311
16.2 Location of the Torsion Center 312
17 Flexure of Thick Composite Plates ......................................................... 317
17.1 Preliminary Remarks 317
17.1.1 Transverse Normal Stress σz 317
17.1.2 Transverse Shear Stresses τxz and τyz 317
17.1.3 Hypotheses 318
17.2 Displacement Field 320
17.3 Strains 322
17.4 Constitutive Relations 322
17.4.1 Membrane Equations 322
17.4.2 Bending Behavior 323
17.4.3 Transverse Shear Equation 325
17.5 Equilibrium Equations 326
17.5.1 Transverse Equilibrium 326
17.5.2 Equilibrium in Bending 326
17.6 Technical Formulation for Bending 327
17.6.1 Plane Stresses Due to Bending 327
17.6.2 Transverse Shear Stresses in Bending 328
17.6.3 Characterization of the Bending, Warping Increments ηx and ηy 328
17.6.4 Warping Functions 332
17.6.5 Consequences 333
17.6.6 Interpretation in Terms of Energy 336
45199_C000.fm Page x Tuesday, March 20, 2007 12:51 PM

x  Composite Materials: Design and Applications

17.7 Examples 336

17.7.1 Homogeneous Orthotropic Plate 337
17.7.2 Sandwich Plate 338

PART IV: APPLICATIONS

18 Applications.................................................................................................. 343
18.1 Level 1 343
18.1.1 Simply Supported Sandwich Beam 343
18.1.2 Poisson Coefficient of a Unidirectional Layer 345
18.1.3 Helicopter Blade 347
18.1.4 Transmission Shaft for Trucks 353
18.1.5 Flywheel in Carbon/Epoxy 358
18.1.6 Wing Tip Made of Carbon/Epoxy 360
18.1.7 Carbon Fiber Coated with Nickel 371
18.1.8 Tube Made of Glass/Epoxy under Pressure 374
18.1.9 Filament Wound Vessel, Winding Angle 377
18.1.10 Filament Wound Reservoir, Taking the Heads into Account 379
18.1.11 Composite Reservoir; Use of Standards 383
18.1.12 Determination of the Volume Fraction of Fibers by Pyrolysis 391
18.1.13 Lever Arm Made of Carbon/PEEK Unidirectional and Short Fibers 392
18.1.14 Telegraphic Mast in Glass/Resin 395
18.1.15 Unidirectional Ply of HR Carbon 399
18.1.16 Manipulator Arm of Space Shuttle 400
18.2 Level 2 405
18.2.1 Sandwich Beam: Simplified Calculation of the Shear Coefficient 405
18.2.2 Procedure for Calculation of a Laminate 407
18.2.3 Kevlar/Epoxy Laminates: Evolution of Stiffness Depending on the
Direction of the Load 410
18.2.4 Residual Thermal Stresses due to Curing of the Laminate 413
18.2.5 Thermoelastic Behavior of a Tube Made of Filament-Wound
Glass/Polyester 416
18.2.6 Polymeric Tube Under Thermal Load and Creep 419
18.2.7 First Ply Failure of a Laminate—Ultimate Rupture 425
18.2.8 Optimum Laminate for Isotropic Stress State 429
18.2.9 Laminate Made of Identical Layers of Balanced Fabric 433
18.2.10 Wing Spar in Carbon/Epoxy 436
18.2.11 Determination of the Elastic Characteristics of a Carbon/Epoxy
Unidirectional Layer from Tensile Test 443
18.2.12 Sailboat Shell in Glass/Polyester 444
18.2.13 Determination of the In-Plane Shear Modulus of a Balanced
Fabric Ply 450
18.2.14 Quasi-Isotropic Laminate 451
18.2.15 Orthotropic Plate in Pure Torsion 454
18.2.16 Plate Made by Resin Transfer Molding (R.T.M.) 457
18.2.17 Thermoelastic Behavior of a Balanced Fabric Ply 463
18.3 Level 3 472
18.3.1 Cylindrical Bonding 472
18.3.2 Double Bonded Joint 477
18.3.3 Composite Beam with Two Layers 482
18.3.4 Buckling of a Sandwich Beam 485
18.3.5 Shear Due to Bending in a Sandwich Beam 489
45199_C000.fm Page xi Tuesday, March 20, 2007 12:51 PM

Contents  xi

18.3.6 Shear Due to Bending in a Box-Beam and in a I-Beam 493

18.3.7 Column Made of Stretched Polymer 500
18.3.8 Cylindrical Bending of a Thick Orthotropic Plate under
Uniform Loading 508
18.3.9 Bending of a Sandwich Plate 510
18.3.10 Bending Vibration of a Sandwich Beam 513

APPENDICES, BIBLIOGRAPHY, AND INDEX

Appendix 1 ............................................................................................................ 519
Stresses in the Plies of a Laminate of Carbon/Epoxy Loaded in Its Plane 519
Characteristics of Each Ply 519
Appendix 2 ............................................................................................................ 533
Buckling of Orthotropic Structures 533
Rectangular Panels 533
Buckling of Orthotropic Tubes 539
Bibliography.......................................................................................................... 541
Index ....................................................................................................................... 545
45199_C000.fm Page xii Tuesday, March 20, 2007 12:51 PM
45199_C000.fm Page xiii Tuesday, March 20, 2007 12:51 PM

PREFACE

“Composite Materials: Design and Applications” is a major work that contributes

greatly to the domain of “composite structures” both for academic and industrial
use. This new edition responds to the concerns of people that deal with the
conceptualization and design of components made from composite materials, i.e.,
engineers or technicians, teachers, undergraduate or graduate students in universities.
There is a need by engineers working in composites for a practical source of
reference for the design and application of composites. This book fulfills that
need. In the educational sector, composite materials are now taught at many
universities around the world. The topic usually covered is laminate theory.
Composites design courses also exist in a few universities and institutes. The
demand from students and also practitioners of composites for knowledge and
training in the design of composites is increasing. However a good design book
has not been available. The content of these design courses concentrates mostly
on analysis, while applications still remain at the specimen level.
This book, initially written by Daniel Gay in French, has been distributed
widely in France and in French-speaking countries. The authors are of the opinion
that having the book in the English language would facilitate the training and
dissemination of knowledge to the regions where composites are used the most.
The book has been translated into English with modifications and updates. It is
composed of three main parts. The technical level increases from one part to the
next, and one can also use each part independently from the other parts. A fourth
final part groups a large number of original case studies that are themselves totally
formulated and classified according to different levels of difficulties.

 The first part presents an introduction to composite materials, the fabri-

cation processes, the properties of a single ply, sandwich materials, con-
ceptual design, assembly and applications of composites in aerospace and
others areas. The principal ideas in the preliminary step, which consists
in the sizing of a laminate makes up a novel method for design. This part
can be used by itself to form a part of a course on advanced materials
and associated designs.
 The second part presents the mechanics of composites materials. This
consists of a discussion on elastic anisotropic properties, the directional
dependence of different properties, and mechanical properties of thin
laminates. This part can be used by itself to teach students and engineers
about the mechanics of composite materials.
 The third part presents the orthotropic coefficients that may be conve-
niently used for design: The Hill–Tsai failure criterion, bending and torsion

xiii
45199_C000.fm Page xiv Tuesday, March 20, 2007 12:51 PM

xiv  Composite Materials: Design and Applications

of any cross-section composite beams, and bending of thick composite

plates. The proposed method of analysis for the composite beams is
original, as well as the proposed method for the analysis of thick laminated
composite plates, which goes along the same principles as the composite
beams. This part requires a knowledge of the strength of materials. The
information presented here is intended to contribute to a better interpre-
tation of the behavior of composite components.
 The “applications” part provides more than 40 case studies with complete
solutions. There are three levels of applications, each dealing with one of
the three parts above. These cover the large majority of the practical cases
encountered in industry. These problems have been posed in such a way
as to allow the reader to get right into the essential part of the problem.
In the international literature, there is no other work on the subject of
composites that covers such a wide range of issues in a form that is easily
exploitable in the applications domain.

This book can be used to teach students at the first year graduate level as
well as the final year undergraduate level. It is also useful for practical engineers
who want to learn, on the job, the guidelines for the use of composites in their
applications. As in the previous edition, the authors chose to keep only a small
number of reinforcements accompanied by their characteristic numerical values.
This allows for the limiting of the number of tables that accompany the text. The
adaptation of the technique to other reinforcements that are not included in the
book does not create a problem. The reader can find all the necessary elements
to construct either a computer program or a table to produce the performances
for these new cases if necessary.
The authors hope that this volume will make a significant contribution to the
training of future engineers who utilize composites.

Suong V. Hoa
Montreal, Quebec, Canada

Daniel Gay
Toulouse, France
September 2006
45199_book.fm Page 1 Wednesday, February 14, 2007 1:55 PM

PART I
PRINCIPLES OF
CONSTRUCTION
45199_book.fm Page 2 Wednesday, February 14, 2007 1:55 PM
45199_C001.fm Page 3 Tuesday, March 20, 2007 12:49 PM

1
COMPOSITE MATERIALS,
INTEREST, AND PROPERTIES

1.1 WHAT IS COMPOSITE MATERIAL?

As the term indicates, composite material reveals a material that is different from
common heterogeneous materials. Currently composite materials refers to materials
having strong fibers—continuous or noncontinuous—surrounded by a weaker
matrix material. The matrix serves to distribute the fibers and also to transmit the
load to the fibers.
Notes: Composite materials are not new. They have been used since antiquity.
Wood, straw and mud have been everyday composites. Composites have also
been used to optimize the performance of some conventional weapons. For
example:

 In the Mongolian arcs, the compressed parts are made of corn, and the
stretched parts are made of wood and cow tendons glued together.
 Japanese swords or sabers have their blades made of steel and soft iron:
the steel part is stratified like a sheet of paste, with orientation of defects
1
and impurities in the long direction (see Figure 1.1), then formed into a
U shape into which the soft iron is placed. The sword then has good
resistance for flexure and impact.

One can see in this period the beginning of the distinction between the common
composites used universally and the high performance composites.
The composite material as obtained is

 Very heterogeneous.
 Very “anisotropic.” This notion of “anisotropy” will be illustrated later in
Section 3.1 and also in Chapter 9. Simply put this means that the mechanical
properties of the material depend on the direction.

1 15
In folding a sheet of steel over itself 15 times, one obtains 2 = 32,768 layers.

3
45199_C001.fm Page 4 Tuesday, March 20, 2007 12:49 PM

4  Composite Materials: Design and Applications

Stress concentration

Random defects Oriented defects

poor tensile resistance good tensile resistance

Figure 1.1 Effect of the Orientation of Impurities

1.2 FIBERS AND MATRIX

The bonding between fibers and matrix is created during the manufacturing phase
of the composite material. This has fundamental influence on the mechanical
properties of the composite material.

1.2.1 Fibers
Fibers consist of thousands of filaments, each filament having a diameter of
between 5 and 15 micrometers, allowing them to be producible using textile
2
machines; for example, in the case of glass fiber, one can obtain two semi-
products as shown in Figure 1.2. These fibers are sold in the following forms:

 Short fibers, with lengths of a few centimeters or fractions of millimeters are

felts, mats, and short fibers used in injection molding.
 Long fibers, which are cut during time of fabrication of the composite
material, are used as is or woven.

Principal fiber materials are

 Glass
 Aramid or Kevlar® (very light)
 Carbon (high modulus or high strength)
 Boron (high modulus or high strength)
 Silicon carbide (high temperature resistant)

In forming fiber reinforcement, the assembly of fibers to make fiber forms for the
fabrication of composite material can take the following forms:

2
One wants to have fibers as thin as possible because their rupture strength decreases as their
diameter increases, and very small fiber diameters allow for effective radius of curvature in fiber
bending to be on the order of half a millimeter. However, exception is made for boron fibers
(diameter in the order of 100 microns), which are formed around a tungsten filament
(diameter = 12 microns). Their minimum radius of curvature is 4 mm. Then, except for
particular cases, weaving is not possible.
45199_C001.fm Page 5 Tuesday, March 20, 2007 12:49 PM

Composite Materials, Interest, and Properties  5

Filaments

Continuous Discontinuous
fiber fiber

Glass Fibers
staple for
fiber weaving
Textile filament
Roving
or strand

Figure 1.2 Different Fiber Forms

 Unidimensional: unidirectional tows, yarns, or tapes

 Bidimensional: woven or nonwoven fabrics (felts or mats)
 Tridimensional: fabrics (sometimes called multidimensional fabrics) with
fibers oriented along many directions (>2)

Before the formation of the reinforcements, the fibers are subjected to a surface
treatment to
 Decrease the abrasion action of fibers when passing through the forming
machines.
 Improve the adhesion with the matrix material.
Other types of reinforcements, full or empty spheres (microspheres) or powders
(see Section 3.5.3), are also used.

1.2.1.1 Relative Importance of Different Fibers in Applications

Figure 1.3 allows one to judge the relative importance in terms of the amount of
fibers used in the fabrication of composites. One can immediately notice the
industrial importance of fiber glass (produced in large quantities). Carbon and
Kevlar fibers are reserved for high performance components.
Following are a few notes on the fibers:
 Glass fiber: The filaments are obtained by pulling the glass (silicon + sodium
carbonate and calcium carbonate; T > 1000°C) through the small orifices of
a plate made of platinum alloy.
 Kevlar fiber: This is an aramid fiber, yellowish color, made by DuPont de
Nemours (USA). These are aromatic polyamides obtained by synthesis at
−10°C, then fibrillated and drawn to obtain high modulus of elasticity.
 Carbon fiber: Filaments of polyacrylonitrile or pitch (obtained from residues
of the petroleum products) are oxidized at high temperatures (300°C), then
heated further to 1500°C in a nitrogen atmosphere. Then only the hexagonal
45199_C001.fm Page 6 Tuesday, March 20, 2007 12:49 PM

6  Composite Materials: Design and Applications

Mass (tons)

1,800,000

Glass

1,100,000

7000
Carbon; Kevlar

2000 3500

1984 1987 1990 1993

Figure 1.3 Relative Sale Volume of Different Fibers

Carbon fiber

Figure 1.4 Structure of Carbon Fiber

carbon chains, as shown in Figure 1.4, remain. Black and bright filaments
are obtained. High modulus of elasticity is obtained by drawing at high
temperature.
 Boron fiber: Tungsten filament (diameter 12 μm) serves to catalyze the
reaction between boron chloride and hydrogen at 1200°C. The boron fibers
obtained have a diameter of about 100 μm (the growth speed is about
1 micron per second).
 Silicon carbide: The principle of fabrication is analogous to that of boron
fiber: chemical vapor deposition (1200°C) of methyl trichlorosilane mixed
with hydrogen.
The principal physical–mechanical properties of the fibers are indicated in
Table 1.3. Note the very significant disparity of the prices per unit weight.
45199_C001.fm Page 7 Tuesday, March 20, 2007 12:49 PM

Composite Materials, Interest, and Properties  7

1.2.2 Matrix Materials

The matrix materials include the following:

 Polymeric matrix: thermoplastic resins (polypropylene, polyphenylene

sulfone, polyamide, polyetheretherketone, etc.) and thermoset resins (poly-
esters, phenolics, melamines, silicones, polyurethanes, epoxies). Their prin-
cipal physical properties are indicated in the Table 1.4.
 Mineral matrix: silicon carbide, carbon. They can be used at high tem-
peratures (see Sections 2.2.4, 3.6, 7.1.10, 7.5).
 Metallic matrix: aluminum alloys, titanium alloys, oriented eutectics.

1.3 WHAT CAN BE MADE USING COMPOSITE MATERIALS?

The range of applications is very large. A few examples are shown below.

 Electrical, Electronics
 Insulation for electrical construction
 Supports for circuit breakers
 Supports for printed circuits
 Armors, boxes, covers
 Antennas, radomes
 Tops of television towers
 Cable tracks
 Windmills
 Buildings and Public Works
 Housing cells
 Chimneys
 Concrete molds
 Various covers (domes, windows, etc.)
 Swimming pools
 Facade panels
 Profiles
 Partitions, doors, furniture, bathrooms
 Road Transports
 Body components
 Complete body
 Wheels, shields, radiator grills,
 Transmission shafts
 Suspension springs
 Bottles for compressed petroleum gas
 Chassis
 Suspension arms
 Casings
 Cabins, seats
 Highway tankers, isothermal trucks
 Trailers
45199_C001.fm Page 8 Tuesday, March 20, 2007 12:49 PM

8  Composite Materials: Design and Applications

 Rail transports:
 Fronts of power units
 Wagons
 Doors, seats, interior panels
 Ventilation housings
 Marine Transports:
 Hovercrafts
 Rescue crafts
 Patrol boats
 Trawlers
 Landing gears
 Anti-mine ships
 Racing boats
 Pleasure boats
 Canoes
 Cable transports:
 Telepherique cabins
 Telecabins
 Air transports
 All composite passenger aircrafts
 All composite gliders
 Many aircraft components: radomes, leading edges, ailerons, vertical
stabilizers, wings, …
 Helicopter blades, propellers
 Transmission shafts
 Aircraft brake discs
 Space Transports
 Rocket boosters
 Reservoirs
 Nozzles
 Shields for atmosphere reentrance
 General mechanical applications
 Gears
 Bearings
 Housings, casings
 Jack body
 Robot arms
 Fly wheels
 Weaving machine rods
 Pipes
 Components of drawing table
 Compressed gas bottles
 Tubes for offshore platforms
 Pneumatics for radial frames
 Sports and Recreation
 Tennis and squash rackets
 Fishing poles
 Skis
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Composite Materials, Interest, and Properties  9

 Poles used in jumping

 Sails
 Surf boards
 Roller skates
 Bows and arrows
 Javelins
 Protection helmets
 Bicycle frames
 Golf clubs
 Oars

1.4 TYPICAL EXAMPLES OF INTEREST ON THE USE

OF COMPOSITE MATERIALS
In the domain of commercial aircraft, one can compare the concerns of manufac-
turers with the principal characteristic properties of composite materials. The
concerns of the manufacturers are performance and saving. The characteristics of
composite components include the following:

 Weight saving leads to fuel saving, increase in payload, or increase in range

which improves performances.
 Good fatigue resistance leads to enhanced life which involves saving in the
long-term cost of the product.
 Good corrosion resistance means fewer requirements for inspection which
results in saving on maintenance cost.

Moreover, taking into account the cost of the composite solution as compared with
the conventional solution, one can state that composites fit the demand of aircraft
manufacturers.

1.5 EXAMPLES ON REPLACING CONVENTIONAL

SOLUTIONS WITH COMPOSITES
Table 1.1 shows a few significant cases illustrating the improvement on price and
performance that can be obtained after replacement of a conventional solution
with a composite solution.

1.6 PRINCIPAL PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

Tables 1.2 through 1.5 take into account the properties of only individual com-
ponents, reinforcements, or matrices. The characteristics of composite materials
resulting from the combination of reinforcement and matrix depend on

 The proportions of reinforcements and matrix (see Section 3.2)

 The form of the reinforcement (see Section 3.2)
 The fabrication process
45199_C001.fm Page 10 Tuesday, March 20, 2007 12:49 PM

10  Composite Materials: Design and Applications

Table 1.1 Some Significant Cases

Price of Previous Price of Composite
Application Construction Construction
3
65 m reservoir for Stainless steel + 0.53
chemicals installation: 1.
Smoke stack for chemical Steel: 1. 0.51
plant
Nitric acid vapor washer Stainless steel: 1. 0.33
Helicopter stabilizer Light alloys + steel Carbon/epoxy (9 kg): 0.45
(16 kg): 1.
Helicopter winch support Welded steel (16 kg): 1. Carbon/epoxy (11 kg): 1.2
Helicopter motor hub (Mass: 1): 1. Carbon/Kevlar/epoxy
(mass: 0.8): 0.4
X–Y table for fabrication of Cast aluminum: Rate of Carbon/epoxy honeycomb
integrated circuits fabrication: 30 plates/hr sandwich: 55 plates/hr
Drum for drawing table Speed of drawing: 15 to Kevlar/epoxy: 40 to
30 cm/sec 80 cm/sec
Head of welding robot Aluminum: Mass = 6 kg Carbon/epoxy: Mass = 3 kg
Weaving machine rod Aluminum: Rate = 250 Carbon/epoxy: Rate = 350
shots/minute shots/minute
Aircraft floor (Mass = 1): 1. Carbon/Kevlar/epoxy
(mass: 0.8): 1.7

These characteristics may be observed in Figure 1.5, which shows the tensile
strength for different fiber fractions and different forms of reinforcement for the
case of glass/resin composite, and Figure 1.6, which gives an interesting view on
the specific resistance of the principal composites as a function of temperature.
(The specific strength is defined as the strength divided by the density σrupt/ρ.)
Other remarkable properties of these materials include the following:

 Composite materials do not yield (their elastic limits correspond to the

rupture limit; see Section 5.4.5).
 Composite materials are very fatigue resistant (see Section 5.1).
 Composite materials age subject to humidity (epoxy resin can absorb water
by diffusion up to 6% of its mass; the composite of reinforcement/resin
can absorb up to 2%) and heat.
 Composite materials do not corrode, except in the case of contact “aluminum
with carbon fibers” in which galvanic phenomenon creates rapid corrosion.
 Composite materials are not sensitive to the common chemicals used in
engines: grease, oils, hydraulic liquids, paints and solvents, petroleum.
However, cleaners for paint attack the epoxy resins.
 Composite materials have medium to low level impact resistance (inferior
to that of metallic materials).
 Composite materials have excellent fire resistance as compared with the
light alloys with identical thicknesses. However, the smokes emitted from
the combustion of certain matrices can be toxic.
Table 1.2 Properties of Commonly Used Metals and Alloys and Silicon
Coefficient of
Coefficient of Thermal
Density Elastic Shear Tensile Thermal Conductivity Heat Useful
Metals and ρ Modulus Modulus Poisson Strength Elongation Expansion at at 20°C Capacity Temperature
3 −1
Alloys (kg/m ) E (MPa) G (MPa) Ratio ν σult (Mpa) (%) 20°C α (°C ) λ(W/m°C) c(J/kg˚C) Limit Tmax (˚C)
−5
Steels 7800 205,000 79,000 0.3 400 to 1.8 to 10 1.3 × 10 20 to 100 400 to 800 800
45199_C001.fm Page 11 Tuesday, March 20, 2007 12:49 PM

1600
−5
Aluminum 2800 75,000 29,000 0.3 450 10 2.2 × 10 140 1000 350
Alloy 2024
−5
Titanium 4400 105,000 40,300 0.3 1200 14 0.8 × 10 17 540 700
Alloy
TA 6V
−5
Copper 8800 125,000 48,000 0.3 200 to 1.7 × 10 380 390 650
500
Nickel 8900 220,000 500 to 70 500 900
850
−5
Beryllium 1840 294,000 0.05 200 1.2 × 10 150 (20˚C) 1750 (20˚C) 900
90 (800˚C) 3000 (800˚C)
Silicon 2200 95,000 5 1.4 (20˚C) 750 (20˚C) 1300
3 (1200˚C) 1200(500˚C)
Composite Materials, Interest, and Properties
 11
Table 1.3 Properties of Commonly Used Reinforcements
Coefficient of Coefficient Useful
Fiber Modulus of Shear Tensile Thermal of Thermal Heat Temperature
Diameter Density Elasticity Modulus Poisson Strength Elongation Expansion Conductivity Capacity Limit Tmax Price
3 −1
Reinforcements d(μm) ρ(kg/m ) E(Mpa) G(Mpa) Ratio ν σUlt (Mpa) E(%) α (°C ) λ(W/M°C) c(J/kg˚C) (°C) ($/kg)
−5
“R” glass, 10 2500 86,000 0.2 3200 4 0.3 × 10 1 800 700 14
high
performance
−5
“E” glass, 16 2600 74,000 30,000 0.25 2500 3.5 0.5 × 10 1 800 700 2
common
45199_C001.fm Page 12 Tuesday, March 20, 2007 12:49 PM

applications
−5
Kevlar 49 12 1450 130,000 12,000 0.4 2900 2.3 −0.2 × 10 0.03 1400 70
−5
“HT” 7 1750 230,000 50,000 0.3 3200 1.3 0.02 × 10 200 (20°C) 800 >1500 70
graphite, 60 (800°C)
high
strength
−5
“HM” 6.5 1800 390,000 20,000 0.35 2500 0.6 0.08 × 10 200 (20°C) 800 >1500 140
graphite, 60 (800°C)
12  Composite Materials: Design and Applications

high
modulus
−5
Boron 100 2600 400,000 3400 0.8 0.4 × 10 500 500
Aluminum 20 3700 380,000 1400 0.4 50 (20°C) 900 >1000
7 (800°C)
Aluminum 10 2600 200,000 3000 1.5
silicate
−5
Silicon 14 2550 200,000 2800 1.3 0.5 × 10 1300 600
carbide
Polyethylene 960 100,000 3000 150
Table 1.4 Properties of Commonly Used Resins
Coefficient Coefficient Useful
Density Elastic Shear Tensile of Thermal of Thermal Heat Temperature
ρ Modulus Modulus Poisson Strength Elongation Expansion Conductivity Capacity Limit Tmax Price
3 −1
Resins (kg/m ) E(Mpa) G(Mpa) Ratio ν σUlt (Mpa) E% α (°C ) λ (W/m°C) C(J/kg°C) (°C) ($/kg)

Thermosets
−5
Epoxy 1200 4500 1600 0.4 130 2 (100˚C) 11 × 10 0.2 1000 90 to 200 6 to
6 (200˚C) 20
−5
Phenolic 1300 3000 1100 0.4 70 2.5 1 × 10 0.3 1000 120 to 200
−5
Polyester 1200 4000 1400 0.4 80 2.5 8 × 10 0.2 1400 60 to 200 2.4
45199_C001.fm Page 13 Tuesday, March 20, 2007 12:49 PM

−5
Polycarbonate 1200 2400 0.35 60 6 × 10 1200 120
−5
Vinylester 1150 3300 75 4 5 × 10 >100 4
Silicone 1100 2200 0.5 35 100 to 350
Urethane 1100 700 to 30 100 100 4
7000
−5
Polyimide 1400 4000 to 1100 0.35 70 1 8 × 10 0.2 1000 250 to 300
19,000
Thermoplastics
−5
Polypropylene 900 1200 0.4 30 20 to 400 9 × 10 330 70 to 140
(pp)
−5
Polyphenylene 1300 4000 65 100 5 × 10 130 to 250
sulfone (pps)
−5
Polyamide (pa) 1100 2000 0.35 70 200 8 × 10 1200 170 6
−5
Polyether sulfone 1350 3000 85 60 6 × 10 180 25
(pes)
−5
Polyetherimide (pei) 1250 3500 105 60 6 × 10 0.2 200 20
−5
Composite Materials, Interest, and Properties

Polyether-ether- 1300 4000 90 50 5 × 10 0.3 140 to 250 96

ketone (peek)
 13
Table 1.5 Properties of Commonly Used Core Materials
Coefficient Coefficient Useful
Modulus Shear Compressive of Thermal of Thermal Heat Temperature
Density of Elasticity Modulus Poisson Strength Elongation Expansion Conductivity Capacity Limit Price
3 −1
Cores ρ(Kg/M ) E(Mpa) G(Mpa) Ratio ν σUlt(Mpa) E% α(°C ) λ(W/M°C) C(J/Kg°C) Tmax (°C) ($/Kg)

Balsa 100 to 2000 to 100 to 8 to 18 0.05 11

190 6000 250
45199_C001.fm Page 14 Tuesday, March 20, 2007 12:49 PM

Polyurethane 30 to 70 25 to 60 0.4 75
foam
Polystyrene 30 to 45 20 to 30 0.4 0.25 to 1.25 75
foam
Honeycombs
Impregnated 50 to
carton 350
14  Composite Materials: Design and Applications

Impregnated 100 to
glass fabric 600
Aluminum 15 to 130 130 to 0.2 to 8
910
Steel 550 to
1250
Nomex® 25 to 50 10 to 40 0.2 to 2.5
45199_C001.fm Page 15 Tuesday, March 20, 2007 12:49 PM

Composite Materials, Interest, and Properties  15

2250
Unidirectional roving
“R”
2000 High
performance
1750
Unidirectional roving
1500 “E”
Ultimate stress (MPa)

1250 Mechanical
components

1000
Unidirectional fabric
750
Panels

500 Bidirectional fabric

Auto body Mats/Cut fibers

250
Diverse applications
0
10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80%
Glass percentage in volume

Figure 1.5 Tensile Strength of Glass/Resin Composites

1
Specific tensile stress

Kevlar/epoxy
(σrupture/ρ) × 10−6

“R” Glass/epoxy Carbon/Carbon

0.5 Carbon/epoxy
Titanium Carbon/SiC(2D)
Steel SiC/SiC(2D)

0
0 500 1000 1500 2000
Aluminum
Temperature (°C)

Figure 1.6 Specific Strength of Different Composites

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45199_book.fm Page 17 Wednesday, February 14, 2007 1:55 PM

2
FABRICATION PROCESSES

The mixture of reinforcement/resin does not really become a composite material

until the last phase of the fabrication, that is, when the matrix is hardened. After
this phase, it would be impossible to modify the material, as in the way one would
like to modify the structure of a metal alloy using heat treatment, for example.
In the case of polymer matrix composites, this has to be polymerized, for example,
polyester resin. During the solidification process, it passes from the liquid state to
the solid state by copolymerization with a monomer that is mixed with the resin.
The phenomenon leads to hardening. This can be done using either a chemical
(accelerator) or heat. The following pages will describe the principal processes for
the formation of composite parts.

2.1 MOLDING PROCESSES

The flow chart in Figure 2.1 shows the steps found in all molding processes.
Forming by molding processes varies depending on the nature of the part, the
number of parts, and the cost. The mold material can be made of metal, polymer,
wood, or plaster.

2.1.1 Contact Molding

Contact molding (see Figure 2.2) is open molding (there is only one mold, either
male or female). The layers of fibers impregnated with resin (and accelerator) are
placed on the mold. Compaction is done using a roller to squeeze out the air
pockets. The duration for resin setting varies, depending on the amount of accel-
erator, from a few minutes to a few hours. One can also obtain parts of large
dimensions at the rate of about 2 to 4 parts per day per mold.

2.1.2 Compression Molding

With compression molding (see Figure 2.3), the countermold will close the mold
after the impregnated reinforcements have been placed on the mold. The whole
assembly is placed in a press that can apply a pressure of 1 to 2 bars. The
polymerization takes place either at ambient temperature or higher.
The process is good for average volume production: one can obtain several
dozen parts a day (up to 200 with heating). This has application for automotive
and aerospace parts.

17
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18  Composite Materials: Design and Applications

Reinforcement Resin

Impregnation (mixing)

Placing mixture on tool

Compaction

Polymerization

Demold

Finishing

Figure 2.1 Steps in Molding Process

Reinforcement: glass; Kevlar

Roller
Matrix: polyester resin

Release agent + gel coat

Figure 2.2 Contact Molding

Reinforcement + matrix
Counter mold

Mold Release
agent + gel coat

Figure 2.3 Compression Molding

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Fabrication Processes  19

Seal putty
Atmospheric pressure
Soft plastic film

Felt for pumping

Vacuum pump

Laminate Separator

Figure 2.4 Vacuum Molding

Biological Accelerator
protection 20 kw–10 MeV

Laminate under pressure

Electron beam X rays

e ≤ 300 mm
e ≤ 25 mm

Figure 2.5 Electron Beam or X-ray Molding

2.1.3 Molding with Vacuum

This process of molding with vacuum is still called depression molding or bag
molding. As in the case of contact molding described previously, one uses an
open mold on top of which the impregnated reinforcements are placed. In the
case of sandwich materials, the cores are also used (see Chapter 4). One sheet
of soft plastic is used for sealing (this is adhesively bonded to the perimeter of
the mold). Vacuum is applied under the piece of plastic (see Figure 2.4). The
piece is then compacted due to the action of atmospheric pressure, and the air
bubbles are eliminated. Porous fabrics absorb excess resin. The whole material
is polymerized by an oven or by an autoclave under pressure (7 bars in the case
of carbon/epoxy to obtain better mechanical properties), or with heat, or with
electron beam, or x-rays; see Figure 2.5). This process has applications for aircraft
structures, with the rate of a few parts per day (2 to 4).
45199_book.fm Page 20 Wednesday, February 14, 2007 1:55 PM

20  Composite Materials: Design and Applications

Resin

Figure 2.6 Resin Injection Molding

Heated mold
Mat + thermoset resin
Heater
counter mold

Figure 2.7 Injection of Premixed

Heaters Mat + thermoplastic resin

Figure 2.8 Injection of Thermoplastic Premixed

2.1.4 Resin Injection Molding

With resin injection molding (see Figure 2.6), the reinforcements (mats, fabrics) are
put in place between the mold and countermold. The resin (polyester or phenolic)
is injected. The mold pressure is low. This process can produce up to 30 pieces
per day. The investment is less costly and has application in automobile bodies.

2.1.5 Molding by Injection of Premixed

The process of molding by injection of premixed allows automation of the
fabrication cycle (rate of production up to 300 pieces per day).

 Thermoset resins: Can be used to make components of auto body. The

schematic of the process is shown in Figure 2.7.
 Thermoplastic resins: Can be used to make mechanical components
with high temperature resistance, as shown in Figure 2.8.
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Fabrication Processes  21

Isocyanate
Mold
Counter mold
(low pressure
and temperature) “Isocyanate +
polyol” mixture Polyurethane
foam

Polyol + cut fibers

Figure 2.9 Foam Injection

Fabric reinforcement
Mold
Resin
Heating

Short fiber
reinforcement

Figure 2.10 Centrifugal Molding

2.1.6 Molding by Foam Injection

Molding by foam injection (see Figure 2.9) allows the processing of pieces of
fairly large dimensions made of polyurethane foam reinforced with glass fibers.
These pieces remain stable over time, with good surface conditions, and have
satisfactory mechanical and thermal properties.

2.1.7 Molding of Components of Revolution

The process of centrifugal molding (see Figure 2.10) is used for the fabrication
of tubes. It allows homogeneous distribution of resin with good surface conditions,
including the internal surface of the tube. The length of the tube depends on the
length of the mold. Rate of production varies with the diameter and length of the
tubes (up to 500 kg of composite per day).
The process of filament winding (see Figure 2.11) can be integrated into a
continuous chain of production and can fabricate tubes of long length. The rate
of production can be up to 500 kg of composite per day. These can be used to
make missile tubes, torpillas, containers, or tubes for transporting petroleum.
For pieces which must revolve around their midpoint, winding can be done
on a mandrel. This can then be removed and cured in an autoclave (see Figure
2.12). The fiber volume fraction is high (up to 85%). This process is used to
fabricate components of high internal pressure, such as reservoirs and propulsion
nozzles.
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22  Composite Materials: Design and Applications

Filaments,
mat, fabric Heating
(polymerization)

Figure 2.11 Filament Winding

Glass,
Kevlar

Resin

Figure 2.12 Filament Winding on Complex Mandrel

Cellulosic film
Fiberglas
mat or
Resin fabric Polymerization
oven

Cellulosic film

Figure 2.13 Sheet Forming

2.2 OTHER FORMING PROCESSES

2.2.1 Sheet Forming
This procedure of sheet forming (see Figure 2.13) allows the production of plane
or corrugated sheets by corrugation or ribs.
45199_book.fm Page 23 Wednesday, February 14, 2007 1:55 PM

Fabrication Processes  23

Resin

Glass mat
or fabric Polymerization oven

Figure 2.14 Profile Forming

Preheated plate:
glass mat or fabric
Cooled matrix

Figure 2.15 Stamp Forming

2.2.2 Profile Forming

The piece shown in Figure 2.14 is made by pultrusion. This process makes possible
the fabrication of continuous open or closed profiles. The fiber content is important
for high mechanical properties. The rate of production varies between 0.5 and 3 m/
minute, depending on the nature of the profile.

2.2.3 Stamp Forming

Stamp forming (see Figure 2.15) is only applicable to thermoplastic composites.
One uses preformed plates, which are heated, stamped, and then cooled down.

2.2.4 Preforming by Three-Dimensional Assembly

Example: Carbon/carbon. The carbon reinforcement is assembled by depositing
the woven tows along several directions in space. Subsequently the empty space
between the tows is filled by “impregnation.” The following two techniques are
used:

 Impregnation using liquid: Pitch is used under a pressure of 1000 bars,

followed by carbonization.
 Impregnation using gas: This involves chemical vapor deposition using
a hot gaseous hydrocarbon atmosphere.

Example: Silicon/silicon. The reinforcement is composed of filaments of

silicon ceramics. The silicon matrix is deposited in the form of liquid solution of
colloidal silicon, followed by drying under high pressure and high temperature
(2000 bars, 2000°C). The preforms are then machined. The phases of development
45199_book.fm Page 24 Wednesday, February 14, 2007 1:55 PM

24  Composite Materials: Design and Applications

of these composites, such as the densification (formation of the matrix) are long
and delicate. These make the products very onerous. Applications include missile
and launcher nozzles, brake disks, ablative tiles for reentry body of spacecraft
into the atmosphere.

2.2.5 Cutting of Fabric and Trimming of Laminates

Some components need a large number of fabric layers (many dozens, can be
hundreds). For the small and medium series, it can be quite expensive to operate
manually for

 following the form of a cut.

 respect the orientation specified by the design (see Chapter 5).
 minimizing waste.

There is a tendency to produce a cut or a drape automatically with the following

characteristics:

 a programmed movement of the cutting machine

 a rapid cutting machine, such as an orientable vibrating cutting knife or
a laser beam with the diameter of about 0.2 mm and a cutting speed
varying from 15 to 40 meters/minute, depending on the power of the laser
and the thickness of the part.

Example: With a draping machine MAD Forest-Line (FRA), the draping is done
in two steps by means of two distinct installations:

 A cutting machine that produces a roller to which the cut pieces are
attached (cassettes)
 A depositing machine which uses the cassette of cut pieces to perform
the draping.

The two operations are shown schematically in Figure 2.16.

2.3 PRACTICAL HINTS ON MANUFACTURING PROCESSES

2.3.1 Acronyms
To describe the modes of fabricating the composite pieces, the professionals use
many abbreviations. Each is detailed below, with reference to the paragraph
number where the process is explained.

B.M.C.: “Bulk Molding Compound.” Matrix: resins. Reinforcement: cut

fibers; additional fillers (powder). Pressure: 5–10 MPa. Temperature: 120–
150°C.
Centrifugation: Matrix: resins. Reinforcement: cut fibers, mat, fabrics; see
Section 2.1.7.
45199_book.fm Page 25 Wednesday, February 14, 2007 1:55 PM

Fabrication Processes  25

Removal of scraps New film

+ + +
Cutting +
Cassette of cut-outs

Cassette of cut-outs
Bobbin for the recovery of the film

+
+ +
Lay-up machine

Bobbin for the +

recovery of +
the film + +
Speed
15–30 m/min

Figure 2.16 Draping Process

Contact molding: Matrix: resins. Reinforcement: mat, fabrics; see Section

2.1.1.
Filament winding: Matrix: resins. Reinforcement: continuous fibers; see
Section 2.1.7.
Compression molding: Matrix: resins. Reinforcement: fabrics or unidi-
rectionals; see Section 2.1.2.
Autoclave molding: Matrix: resins. Reinforcement: fabrics or unidirection-
als; under pressure in an autoclave; see Section 2.1.3.
Pultrusion: Matrix: resins. Reinforcement: mat, fabrics, continuous fibers;
see Section 2.2.2.
R-RIM: “Reinforced–Reaction Injection Molding” (there is expansion in the
mold). Pressure: 0.5 MPa. Temperature: 50–60° C; see Section 2.1.6.
S-RIM: “Structural Reaction Injection Molding” (components for structure,
particularly in automobiles). Similar to R-RIM, injection of liquid thermoset
resins consists of two highly reactive constituents.
RTM: “Resin Transfer Molding.” Matrix: resins. Reinforcement: Preforms of
cut fibers or fabrics. Pressure: low (in vacuum or 0.1–0.3 MPa). Temper-
ature: 80°C.
SMC: “Sheet Molding Compound.” Matrix: liquid resin with addition of
magnesia. Reinforcement: mat, unidirectionals. Pressure: 5–10 MPa. Tem-
perature: 120–150°C.
45199_book.fm Page 26 Wednesday, February 14, 2007 1:55 PM

26  Composite Materials: Design and Applications

600
Kevlar/
epoxy

Autoclave molding

Carbon/
epoxy

Low pressure molding

400 Price of a kilogram of composite

Glass/
epoxy
Material
+ transformation
+ mortgage of equipment
+ finishing
Price (S/kg)

High performance
composites
Filament winding
200
Contact molding
Centrifugal molding

R.S.T.
Pultrusion

Continuous lamination
Carbon/
epoxy R.-RIM
Kevlar/ BMC
epoxy SMC
Glass/ ZMC
epoxy
Glass/
polyester Glass/ Glass/ Glass/ Glass/ Glass/ Glass/ High
20 polyester polyester polyamid polyester polyester polyurethane Glass/ volume
polyester composites
10
Glass/
polypropylene

Figure 2.17 Cost Comparison for Different Processes

45199_book.fm Page 27 Wednesday, February 14, 2007 1:55 PM

Fabrication Processes  27

RTP: “Reinforced Thermoplastics.” Matrix: thermoplastic resins. Reinforce-

ment: cut fibers. Pressure: 50 to 150 MPa. Temperature: 120–150°C.
RST: “Reinforced Stamped Thermoplastics.” Pressure: 15–20 MPa. Initial
temperature: ≈200°C; see Section 2.2.3.
ZMC: Matrix: resin. Reinforcement: cut fibers. Pressure: 30–50 MPa. Tem-
perature: 120–150°C.
TMC: Similar to “SMC” but with higher amount of glass fibers (a few
millimeters in thickness).
XMC: Similar to “SMC” but with specific orientation of the fibers.

2.3.2 Cost Comparison

The diagram in Figure 2.17 allows the comparison of the cost to fabricate
composite products. One needs to note the important difference between the cost
of composites produced in large volume and the cost of high performance
composites.
45199_book.fm Page 28 Wednesday, February 14, 2007 1:55 PM
45199_book.fm Page 29 Wednesday, February 14, 2007 1:55 PM

3
PLY PROPERTIES

It is of fundamental importance for the designer to understand and to know

precisely the geometric and mechanical characteristics of the “fiber + matrix” mixture
which is the basic structure of the composite parts. The description of these charac-
teristics is the object of this chapter.

3.1 ISOTROPY AND ANISOTROPY

When one studies the mechanical behavior of elastic bodies under load (elasticity
theory), one has to consider the following:

 An elastic body subjected to str esses deforms in a reversible

manner.
 At each point within the body, one can identify the principal planes on
which there are only normal stresses.
 The normal directions on these planes are called the principal stress
directions.
 A small sphere of material surrounding a point of the body becomes an
ellipsoid after loading.

The spatial position of the ellipsoid relative to the principal stress directions
enables us to characterize whether the material under study is isotr opic or
anisotropic. Figure 3.1 illustrates this phenomenon.
Figure 3.2 illustrates the deformation of an isotropic sample and an anisotropic
sample. In the latter case, the oblique lines represent the preferred directions
along which one would place the fibers of reinforcement. One can consider that
a longitudinal loading applied to an isotropic plate would create an extension in
the longitudinal direction and a contraction in the transverse direction. The same
loading applied to an anisotropic plate creates an angular distortion, in addition
to the longitudinal extension and transversal contraction.
In the simple case of plane stress, one can obtain the elastic constants using
stress–strain relations.

29
45199_book.fm Page 30 Wednesday, February 14, 2007 1:55 PM

30  Composite Materials: Design and Applications

M Before stress application

σz
σz
Application of stress

σy σx σy
σx

Isotropic material: the axes Anisotropic material: the axes

of the ellipsoid coincide with of the ellipsoid are different
the principal stress axes from the principal stress axes

Figure 3.1 Schematic of Deformation

Isotropic material Anisotropic material

Figure 3.2 Comparison between Deformation of an Isotropic and Anisotropic Plate

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148

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136 kind
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