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Understanding Alt Media pb:Understanding Alt Media pb 16/10/07 18:17 Page 1

and Carpentier
I S S U E S
Olga Guedes Bailey, Bart Cammaerts

Cammaerts
IN CULTURAL AND MEDIA STUDIES
S E R I E S E D I T O R : S T U A R T A L L A N

Bailey,
and Nico Carpentier
Understanding Alternative
Media
• What are alternative media?
• What roles do alternative media play in pluralistic,
democratic societies?
• What are the similarities and differences between
alternative media, community media, civil society
media and rhizomatic media?
• How do alternative media work in practice?
This clear and concise text offers a one-stop guide
through the complex political, social and economic
debates that surround alternative media and provides a
fresh and insightful look at the renewed importance of
this form of communication.
Combing diverse case studies from countries including
the UK, North America and Brazil, the authors propose
an original theoretical framework to help understand the
subject. Looking at both ‘old’ and ‘new’ media, the book
argues for the importance of an alternative media and

Understanding Alternative Media

suggests a political agenda as a way of broadening its scope.

Understanding
Understanding Alternative Media is valuable reading for students
in media, journalism and communications studies, researchers,
academics, and journalists.

Olga Guedes Bailey is a journalist and Senior Lecturer in

the Institute of Cultural Analysis at Nottingham Trent
University, UK. Bart Cammaerts is a political scientist and
Media Researcher lecturing on media, citizenship, and
democracy at the Media and Communication Department of
the London School of Economics and Political Science,
Alternative
University of London, UK. Nico Carpentier is a media
sociologist working at the Communication Studies
Departments of the Vrije Universiteit Brussel and the
Katholieke Universiteit Brussel, Belgium.
Media
Cover illustration: Charlotte Combe
Cover design: del norte (Leeds) Ltd

I S S U E S
IN CULTURAL AND MEDIA STUDIES
UNDERSTANDING ALTERNATIVE
MEDIA
 I S S U E S in CULTURAL and MEDIA STUDIES

Series editor: Stuart Allan

Published titles:
News Culture, 2nd edition Rethinking Cultural Policy
Stuart Allan Jim McGuigan
Modernity and Postmodern Culture, 2nd ed. Media, Politics and the Network Society
Jim McGuigan Robert Hassan
Television, Globalization and Cultural Identities Television and Sexuality
Chris Barker Jane Arthurs
Ethnic Minorities and the Media Identity and Culture
Edited by Simon Cottle Chris Weedon
Cinema and Cultural Modernity Media Discourses
Gill Branston Donald Matheson
Compassion, Morality and the Media
Citizens or Consumers
Keith Tester
Justin Lewis, Sanna Inthorn and Karin
Masculinities and Culture Wahl-Jorgensen
John Beynon
Science, Technology & Culture
Cultures of Popular Music David Bell
Andy Bennett
Museums, Media and Cultural Theory
Media, Risk and Science Michelle Henning
Stuart Allan
Media Talk
Violence and the Media
Ian Hutchby
Cynthia Carter and C. Kay Weaver
Moral Panics and the Media Critical Readings: Moral Panics and the Media
Chas Critcher Edited by Chas Critcher
Cities and Urban Cultures Critical Readings: Violence and the Media
Deborah Stevenson Edited by C. Kay Weaver and Cynthia Carter
Cultural Citizenship Mediatized Conflict
Nick Stevenson Simon Cottle
Culture on Display Games Cultures: Computer Games as New
Bella Dicks Media
Critical Readings: Media and Gender Jon Dovey and Helen Kennedy
Edited by Cynthia Carter and Linda Steiner Perspectives on Global Culture
Critical Readings: Media and Audiences Ramaswami Harindranath
Edited by Virginia Nightingale and Karen Ross Understanding Popular Science
Media and Audiences Peter Broks
Karen Ross and Virginia Nightingale Understanding Alternative Media
Critical Readings: Sport, Culture and the Media Olga Guedes Bailey, Bart Cammaerts and
Edited by David Rowe Nico Carpentier
Sport, Culture and the Media, 2nd edition Media Technology
David Rowe Joost Van Loon
UNDERSTANDING
ALTERNATIVE MEDIA

O l g a Gu e d e s B a i l e y
B a r t C a m m a e r t s
N i c o C a r p e n t i e r
Open University Press
McGraw-Hill Education
McGraw-Hill House
Shoppenhangers Road
Maidenhead
Berkshire
England
SL6 2QL

email: [email protected]
world wide web: www.openup.co.uk

and Two Penn Plaza, New York, NY 10121–2289, USA

First published 2007

Copyright © Olga Bailey, Bart Cammaerts and Nico Carpentier 2008

All rights reserved. Except for the quotation of short passages for the purposes of criticism
and review, no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or
transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording
or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publisher or a licence from the
Copyright Licensing Agency Limited. Details of such licences (for reprographic
reproduction) may be obtained from the Copyright Licensing Agency Ltd of Saffron House,
6–10 Kirby Street, London, EC1N 8TS.

A catalogue record of this book is available from the British Library

ISBN10: 0 335 22210 2 (pb) 0 335 2211 0 (hb)

ISBN13: 978 0 335 22210 0 (pb) 978 0 335 22211 7 (hb)

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

CIP data has been applied for

Typeset by RefineCatch Limited, Bungay, Suffolk

Printed in Poland by OZGraf S.A.
www.polskabook.pl
 CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS vii

FOREWORD ix

INTRODUCTION xi

Part I
Theorizing Alternative Media
1 | FOUR APPROACHES TO ALTERNATIVE MEDIA 3
2 | AN INTRODUCTORY CASE STUDY – RADIO FAVELA : REPRESENTING ALTERNATIVE MEDIA 35

Part II
Case Studies
Serving the community
3 | COMMUNITY APPROACHES IN WESTERN RADIO POLICIES 51
4 | DIASPORAS AND ALTERNATIVE MEDIA PRACTICES 63

An alternative to the mainstream

5 | BLOGS IN THE SECOND IRAQI WAR: ALTERNATIVE MEDIA CHALLENGING THE MAINSTREAM? 72
6 | ETHNIC-RELIGIOUS GROUPS AND ALTERNATIVE JOURNALISM 84
vi | UNDERSTANDING ALTERNATIVE MEDIA

Linking alternative media to the civil society

7 | ONLINE PARTICIPATION AND THE PUBLIC SPHERE: CIVIL SOCIETY MAILING LISTS
AND FORUMS 97
8 | THE BRAZILIAN LANDLESS RURAL WORKERS’ MOVEMENT: IDENTITY, ACTION,
AND COMMUNICATION 108

Alternative media as rhizome

9 | TRANSLOCALIZATION, GLOCALIZATION AND THE INTERNET: THE RADIOSWAP PROJECT 122
10 | JAMMING THE POLITICAL: REVERSE-ENGINEERING, HACKING THE DOMINANT CODES 137

CONCLUSION 149

GLOSSARY 158

ACRONYMS 167

FURTHER READING 168

REFERENCES 172

INDEX 191
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The idea of this book started in 2004 when we – Olga, Bart, and Stuart – were in Rio de
Janeiro, Brazil on our way back to the UK after the IAMCR conference in Porto Alegre,
in the South of Brazil. While enjoying the ‘pleasures’ of Brazilian food in Copacabana,
we had an inspiring conversation about media issues which would contribute to the
current debates in media and cultural studies, particularly regarding media and dem-
ocracy in the current context of global politics. Alternative media, we all agreed, were a
case in point. From there, the project slowly started to take shape, with Nico later
joining the team, which from the beginning had a strong commitment to producing an
exciting book.
This book is the result of productive and engaging conversations among us, our
colleagues who read the manuscript, our editors, the anonymous external reviewers, and
interviewees. The responsibility for the content is ours, but their input certainly made
this a better text. To all of them our deepest thanks. We are especially grateful to S. Allan
for his comments, guidance, and support which were fundamental in enabling us to dare
to cross the established theoretical boundaries of what constitutes ‘alternative media’.
Due to the transnational nature of this project, some expressions of gratitude are
specifically linked to individual authors.
Olga is grateful to her colleagues at Nottingham Trent University for their support.
She expresses her gratitude to Russell, Flavia, and David, for sharing as dores e as
delícias of this experience.
Bart would like to express his gratitude to his colleagues at the LSE and, in particu-
lar, to Robin, Maggie, and Shani for their continued support and feedback. He also
extends his gratitude to his close friends, sisters, mother, and daughter Manon for
having to do without him for extended periods.
Nico wishes to thank J. Servaes and R. Lie for assisting in the development of the
original theoretical model that structured this book, within the framework of a
viii | UNDERSTANDING ALTERNATIVE MEDIA

UNESCO project. He wants to thank all collaborators of the RadioSwap evaluation,

and the two RadioSwap coordinators, D. Demorcy and P. De Jaeger. Finally, his warm
thanks also goes to R. Day, O. Deedniks, and S. Van Bauwel.
Last, but not least, the authors would like to thank DimensionFM, RadioSwap,
MST, Mister Hepburn, the Labour Party, and Jekino Films for granting us permission
to use their visual images.
 SERIES EDITOR’S FOREWORD

Prefigured in any sense of the ‘mainstream’ media is some conception of the

alternatives that fall outside of typical sorts of definitions. Western ideas about what
counts as citizen journalism, for instance, look very different in countries where
ordinary people lack basic access to electricity, let alone to a television set or computer.
In civil war-torn Liberia, Alfred Sirleaf’s efforts to perform a role akin to the citizen
journalist are a case in point. As the managing editor of The Daily Talk, he writes up
news and editorials on a chalkboard positioned on the street outside his ‘newsroom’
shed every day, thereby providing passers-by with important insights into what is
happening in Monrovia. ‘I like to write the way people talk so they can understand it
well,’ he told The New York Times. ‘You got to reach the common [person].] Equipped
with his ‘nose for a good scoop,’ this ‘self-taught newshound’ scours newspapers – and
calls on an informal network of friends acting as correspondents – for the information
necessary to keep everyone ‘in the know.’ For those unable to read words on a chalk-
board, there are symbols – a blue helmet hanging beside the board means the story
involves the United Nations peacekeeping force, while a chrome hubcap represents the
president (the ‘iron lady’ of Liberian politics). In previous years his dedication to
critical reporting has met resistance from those in power; he was arrested and spent a
brief spell in prison, then went into exile while his newsstand was torn down. Today,
with his plywood shed rebuilt, he remains steadfast in his belief that what he is doing
matters for the country’s emergent democracy. ‘Daily Talk’s objective is that everybody
should absorb the news,’ he maintains. ‘Because when a few people out there make
decisions on behalf of the masses that do not go down with them, we are all going
to be victims.’
It is precisely this type of commitment to democratising the relations of power at the
heart of communication that animates Olga Guedes Bailey, Bart Cammaerts and Nico
Carpentier’s Understanding Alternative Media. In a wide-ranging discussion, they
x | SERIES EDITOR’S FORE WORD

argue that alternative media are part and parcel of the daily life of individuals, at once
‘banal’ and ‘political’ in their significance. The authors show how alternative media
can be understood in different ways, from a variety of theoretical perspectives. They
consider competing meanings of the ‘alternative’ in alternative media, including, for
example, alternative in relation to mainstream media; as embedded in the citizenship
politics of civil society; as a means for self-representation for communities, and as a
hybrid form of independent media challenging established relations of authority and
control. Across this continuum, the book examines the evolving uses of different forms
and practices of alternative media, highlighting the relative extent to which they help to
facilitate interactive, two-way processes of communication, connecting people and
their concerns locally and globally. Important insights are generated through a number
of case studies, encompassing community radio, diasporic media, civil society online
forums, and blogging, amongst others. The examples depicted underscore the thesis
that accounts of alternative media need to overcome the limitations of simple binaries
– such as alternative versus mainstream – so as to address their status as contested
spaces constructed, and reconstructed anew, according to the needs, experiences and
aspirations of specific groups (particularly those otherwise underrepresented, ignored
or trivialised elsewhere in the mediascape). All in all, the authors make a compelling
case for re-imagining familiar approaches to alternative media, and demonstrate why
the implications of such theorizing matter in real-world contexts far beyond the realm
of academic debate.
The Issues in Cultural and Media Studies series aims to facilitate a diverse range
of critical investigations into pressing questions considered to be central to current
thinking and research. In light of the remarkable speed at which the conceptual
agendas of cultural and media studies are changing, the series is committed to contrib-
uting to what is an ongoing process of re-evaluation and critique. Each of the books is
intended to provide a lively, innovative and comprehensive introduction to a specific
topical issue from a fresh perspective. The reader is offered a thorough grounding in
the most salient debates indicative of the book’s subject, as well as important insights
into how new modes of enquiry may be established for future explorations. Taken as a
whole, then, the series is designed to cover the core components of cultural and media
studies courses in an imaginatively distinctive and engaging manner.
Stuart Allan
 INTRODUCTION

It is summer 2006 in the countryside in the state of Ceara, Brazil. The Sunday open
market is in full swing in the main square. It is a noisy, vibrant affair with crowds of
shoppers going about their business. Local country music – sertaneja – is being broad-
cast, and the songs are interspersed by the DJ reading out romantic dedications, advert-
isements, and public announcements. This alternative radio broadcast is extremely
rudimentary in terms of technology and format, but it is performing astonishingly well
in terms of engaging with the local people, providing information and entertainment
produced by and for the community. The scene could be any marketplace, almost
anywhere in the world, and is but one example of alternative communication and its
part in people’s daily lives. All of which brings us to why we decided to write a book
about alternative media.
We believe ‘alternative’ communication is important for daily life, for personal and
collective politics, and for our sense of identity and belonging. This sense of belonging
takes diverse forms: participation in more formal ‘politics’ as well as in the banality of
daily life, for instance, the ability to have one’s voice heard at a Sunday open market. At
all those levels alternative media are inclusive of and go beyond the political realm and
reach the everyday life of individuals and communities. More than ever, we are living in
a world of mediated experiences where the centrality and power of mainstream media
are pervasive, and where the variety of the alternative spaces of mediated communica-
tion are acquiring increasing importance as means of representation of public and
private ideas and action, and as their stimuli. We argue in this book that the definition
of ‘alternative’ media should be amplified to include a wider spectrum of media gener-
ally working to democratize information/communication. We make a case for a reim-
agining of the alternative media canon, for a new grammar that includes practices
overlooked by the current discourses defining what constitutes ‘alternative media’.
We use the established discourses as a prudent point of departure to explore a wider
xii | UNDERSTANDING ALTERNATIVE MEDIA

vision of alternative media which cross established borders. We believe this book is
opportune in the context of the fundamental changes occurring in the realms of the
global and local media landscapes, particularly at the level of ordinary people’s daily
lives (and politics). This reconfiguration has been brought about by the confluence of
several features: new technology (the proliferation of cable television channels and the
explosion of sites on the World Wide Web); the fragmentation and fracturing of media
spaces; the liberalization of media markets; and the possibilities opened up by the
reduction in the costs of producing media.
These shifts have implications for the exercise of democracy, power, inclusion, com-
prising the right to communicate and to be represented in the media, and public
participation in the political, public sphere both through engagement with the ongoing
politics of recognition of different social groups and/or the global social struggles of
broader political causes.
Understanding Alternative Media thus begins from the premise that the existing
genealogy of alternative media relies on an unsustainable set of distinctions such as
that between non-commercial and commercial or radical and non-radical alternative
media. We suggest that the identity of alternative media should be articulated as
relational and contingent on the particularities of the contexts of production, distribu-
tion, and consumption. The discussion, therefore, involves a series of both intersecting
and disjunctive critical case studies that disconcert the traditional investment in
essentialist notions of alternative media.
Our aim is to work toward a politics of communication that is concerned with forms
of mediated communication that are ‘alternative’, not only in relation to the main-
stream but also in their potential to voice ideas which are important and distinctive in
their own right, that are not necessarily counter-hegemonic, but are still of significance
for different communities. Our concern is not with the ‘big media’, but with the ‘small’
media that are enabling conversation among those who might be outside the main-
stream public sphere and/or ‘in transit’ between different public media spaces, and
presenting us with new ways of conceiving a democratic-political project of communi-
cation. We are not celebrating ‘alternative’ media per se; we are exploring the plethora
of alternative spaces that might allow for a renewal of what constitutes the practices of
alternative communication/media in the new millennium. We are pointing to the need
for greater empowerment of the large majority of ordinary people removed and dis-
franchised from the media and the political public spheres.
Structurally, the book is organized into two parts. Part I, the theoretical framework,
contains two chapters. In Chapter 1, the central argument is for multiple approaches to
account for the fluidity and array of alternative media identities. We examine what is
meant by the term ‘alternative media’. This exposes the elusiveness of the concept
‘alternative’ and shows that alternative media are articulated in many different ways –
not only in relation to the mainstream media, but also as community media, as civil
society media, and as rhizomatic media. This discussion is informed by existing demo-
cratic and political approaches that have theoretically sustained the identities and
 INTRODUC TION | xiii

practices of alternative media. It also examines the relationship between power and
politics, and the role of civil society as a space of empowerment and the exercise of
citizenship, emphasizing the importance of media and communication in democratic
societies for the promotion of a civic culture.
Chapter 2 contextualizes the argument of the multiple identities of alternative
media, which is illustrated by an in-depth analysis of the Brazilian movie Radio Favela.
This romanticized film about an alternative radio station shows how the community
participates in and represents itself through Rádio Favela. It equally clearly shows how
this radio station positions itself as an alternative to the mainstream media, as an
alternative culture of poverty and pride towards the mainstream capitalist culture, and
as a civil society alternative during the Brazilian military dictatorship. Finally, the film
illustrates the interconnectedness of alternative radio stations, and their complex
(rhizomatic) links with other civil society organizations, but also with the mainstream
media, the state, and the market(s).
Part II situates the theoretical discussion in the context of the alternative media
practices of a variety of actors, including social movements and ethnic minority
groups, from both a local and a global perspective. We investigate the case studies
through the production–text–consumption circuit of alternative media. This empirical
part of the book is structured in terms of the four approaches to understanding alter-
native media, set out in Chapter 1: ‘serving a community’; ‘alternative media as an
alternative to mainstream media’; ‘linking alternative media to civil society’; and
‘alternative media as rhizome’.
Chapters 3 and 4 address the category of serving the community. Chapter 3 exam-
ines the impact of media regulation and policy on alternative ‘community’ radio sta-
tions in three Western countries – the UK, the USA, and Belgium. We suggest that,
even taking account of the different media histories and approaches in the media
policies analysed, alternative radio stations have had trouble in establishing themselves
alongside public and commercial broadcasters. While they are gradually coming to be
recognized as complementary to public and commercial broadcasting, alternative
‘community’ radios are still struggling for their right to communicate. Chapter 4 pres-
ents the case of diasporic media practices looking at how diasporas and migrants use
‘alternative media’ to create a third space of communication – public sphericules – and
to produce and sustain transnational communities and networks of diasporic groups.
In their diversity, these diasporic media are paramount in the communicative landscape
of diasporas, not only for their reimagining of the self and belonging within and across
spaces, but for their struggles for pluralistic representations.
An alternative to the mainstream is addressed in Chapters 5 and 6. Chapter 5
explores the recent phenomenon of blogging, and particularly its role in the representa-
tion of the second Iraqi War, through three distinct sub-cases. First, we focus on the use
of blogging by Iraqi citizens, which provides an alternative articulation of the experi-
ence of war. A number of these bloggers were appropriated by various mainstream
media because of their alternative discourses and perspectives. Second, blog sites of US
xiv | UNDERSTANDING ALTERNATIVE MEDIA

military personnel – ‘mili-blogs – are analysed; they present, at times, alternative

representations of war that challenge mainstream rational reporting, while at other
times they merely reproduce the dominant hegemony of war. Finally, we contextualize
the role of photo-blogs in the case of the worldwide dissemination of the pictures of
Abu Ghraib prisoners being tortured.
Chapter 6 argues that the lack of visibility and misrepresentation of ethnic and
religious minorities has generated an ongoing struggle over meaning, between the
minorities at the periphery of society and the mainstream media. As a political
response, ethnic-religious communities have created alternative, discursively connected
public spheres, which potentially work to minimize mainstream media hegemonic
power over meaning. Based on the case study of Q-News, a magazine catering for
Muslim communities, we suggest that commercial minority media should be analysed
as social actors that cross the defined borders of ‘alternative’ media and are located in
the ‘public sphericules’ of multicultural societies, where they articulate the struggles
for inclusion and identity recognition of minorities.
Chapters 7 and 8 present case studies illustrating alternative media as part of civil
society. Chapter 7 analyses civil society mailing lists and forums as an expression of
(online) participation in the public sphere. Two quite distinct cases are presented. On
the one hand, we examine the use of mailing lists by civil society actors to enable
participation in policy processes beyond the nation-state. Mailing lists can be con-
sidered potentially to be a (cost-)efficient means of connecting dispersed activists,
networking, exchanging information and facilitating internal decision-making pro-
cesses. On the other hand, we explore the use of the Internet by media activists, such as
Indymedia, to facilitate debate and interaction between citizens. While the former
relates to a more consensual approach, the latter is clearly conflictual in nature.
Chapter 8 centres on the very local, though connected to the global, experience of
the Brazilian Landless Rural Workers’ Movement (MST) and its political action and
alternative communication strategies. We contend that the movement uses political
action both to define a collective identity and to communicate with the Brazilian
people. These actions become a communication medium, which extends our under-
standing of alternative communication beyond a media-centric perspective, and sug-
gests a blurring of communication with media.
Chapters 9 and 10 argue for the alternative media as rhizome by exploring the case
study of the RadioSwap project, and the practice of ‘political jamming’. In Chapter 9,
the focus is on the network of alternative media producers and the alliances they
establish with other civil society organizations through the use of an electronic archive
called RadioSwap. This network of radio producers is firmly rooted in the local, but at
the same time transcends it. Through its architecture, RadioSwap becomes a translocal
community of interest, based on the exchange of self-produced audio that crosses
the frontiers of the local, without losing its connection to it. The analysis of the
RadioSwap project not only illustrates the difficulties that alternative media have to
face when striving for this translocal identity, but also shows that RadioSwap is the
 INTRODUC TION | xv

materialization of the need and the dream to follow the trajectory of networked global
civil society, without losing its grip on its roots.
Chapter 10 investigates the phenomenon of cultural and political jamming, playfully
overturning hegemonic discourses and representations. The discussion is set within a
historical perspective and examines revolutionary art movements, dating back to the
1960s. Several examples of current forms of jamming the political demonstrate that
activists use these techniques to produce and distribute counter-hegemonic discourses
through parody and satire. In this regard, the street, alternative forums, the Internet, as
well as mainstream media are examined. However, it becomes apparent that these
subversive techniques are being appropriated or co-opted by both reactionary forces
and formal political actors.
Finally, in the concluding chapter, we evaluate our claim for a more inclusive con-
ceptualization of ‘alternative media’. We argue that the four approaches to understand-
ing alternative media are not mutually exclusive, as each has its own merits, and,
in conjunction, form a panoptic and encompassing view of alternative media. This
panoptic perspective facilitates an appreciation of the diversity and multiplicity of
alternative media initiatives, acknowledging their connections to communities, their
distinctiveness from mainstream media embedded in civil society, and the fluidity of
the boundaries that we construct between alternative and mainstream, between civil
society, the state, and the market.
PART I:
THEORIZING ALTERNATIVE MEDIA
1 FOUR APPROACHES TO
ALTERNATIVE MEDIA

Even within a single area of alternative media there is much heterogeneity (of
styles, of contributions, of perspectives).
(Atton 2002: 8)

Introduction

In the aftermath of the student and workers’ revolt in May 1968, Libération appeared
as the new ‘alternative’ newspaper of the Left in France. Its first issue (18 April 1973)
carried the following comment:
Since May 1968, the need for a new daily paper has been felt everywhere. A whole
movement of ideas seeks to express itself, a movement that cuts across all the
currents of the existing left, organised or not. Admittedly, it is confused, crossed
by divisions, but nevertheless glued together around a common refusal of an
authoritarian conception of life and around a common aspiration: for a dem-
ocracy rejecting the exploitation of work, everyday violence in the name of
profits, the violence of men against women, the repressions of sexuality, racism, a
spoilt environment.
(cited in Mattelart 1983: 63)
This quote illustrates a number of issues that are of importance for this book. First, by
referring to sexuality, racism, women’s rights, and the environment, it signals a widening
of what constitutes the political. Second, it explicitly places the political within an
open democratic project. Third, in refusing an authoritarian conception of life and
politics, it touches upon the notion of power. Fourth, it talks about a movement of
ideas, which can be attributed to a perceived need and struggle for change, as well as to
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