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Phase Transitions and Renormalization Group
This page intentionally left blank
Phase Transitions and
Renormalization Group

Jean Zinn-Justin
Dapnia, CEA/Saclay, France

and

Institut de Mathématiques de Jussieu-Chevaleret,

Université de Paris VII

1
 3
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1 3 5 7 9 10 8 6 4 2
Preface

Quantum field theory is at the basis of a notable part of the theoretical developments
of twentieth century physics. The model that describes all fundamental interactions,
apart from gravitation, at the microscopic scale, is a quantum field theory. Perhaps
more surprisingly, quantum field theory has also led to a complete understanding
of the singular macroscopic properties of a wide class of phase transitions near the
transition point as well as statistical properties of some geometrical models.
However, unlike Newtonian or non-relativistic quantum mechanics, a quantum
field theory in its most direct formulation leads to severe conceptual difficulties due
to the appearance of infinities in the calculation of physical observables. Eventually,
the problem of infinities was solved empirically by a method called renormalization.
Only later did the method find a satisfactory interpretation, in the framework of
the renormalization group. The problem of infinities is related to an unexpected
phenomenon, the non-decoupling of very different length-scales in some physical
situations.
It is within the framework of statistical physics and continuous phase transitions
that the discussion of these conceptual problems is the simplest. This work thus
tries to provide an elementary introduction to the notions of continuum limit and
universality in physical systems with a large number of degrees of freedom. We will
emphasize the role of Gaussian distributions and their relations with the mean-field
approximation and Landau’s theory of critical phenomena. We will show that quasi-
Gaussian or mean-field approximations cannot describe correctly phase transitions
in two and three space dimensions. We will assign this difficulty to the coupling of
very different physical length-scales, even though the systems we will consider have
only local, that is, short-range interactions. To analyse the problem, a new concept
is required: the renormalization group, whose fixed points allow understanding the
universality of physical properties at large distance, beyond the quasi-Gaussian or
mean-field approximations.
Renormalization group arguments then lead to the idea that, in critical systems,
correlations at large distance near the transition temperature can be described by
local statistical field theories, formally quantum field theories in imaginary time.
This work corresponds to a course delivered, in various forms, for three years at
the University of Paris 7 and first published in French [1]. It is organized in the
following way.
Chapter 1 contains a short, semi-historical, introduction that tries to describe
the evolution of ideas from the first works in quantum field theory [2–5] to the
application of renormalization group methods to phase transitions.
In Chapter 2, we have collected a number of technical results concerning gen-
erating functions, Gaussian measures and the steepest descent method, which are
indispensable for the understanding of the work.
Chapter 3 introduces several basic topics of the work: the notions of continuum
vi Preface

limit and universality, through the examples of the central limit theorem and the
random walk. We show that universality originates from the small probability of
large deviations from the expectation value in probability distributions, which trans-
lates into an hypothesis of locality in random walks. In both examples, universality
is related to the appearance of asymptotic Gaussian distributions. We then show
that, beyond a direct calculation, universality can also be understood as resulting
from the existence of fixed points of transformations acting on the space of probabil-
ity distributions. These very simple examples will allow us to introduce immediately
the renormalization group terminology. Finally, the existence of continuum limits
leads naturally to a description in terms of path integrals.
In Chapter 4, we begin the study of classical statistical systems, the central topic
of this work, with the example of one-dimensional models. This enables us to
introduce the terminology of statistical physics, like correlation functions, thermo-
dynamic limit, correlation length, and so on. Even if one-dimensional systems with
short-range interactions do not exhibit phase transitions, it is nevertheless possi-
ble to define a continuum limit near zero temperature. Moreover, in the case of
short-range interactions, these systems can be solved exactly by the transfer matrix
method, and thus provide interesting pedagogical examples.
The continuum limit of one-dimensional models again leads to path integrals. We
describe some of their properties in Chapter 5 (for a more systematic discussion see,
for example, Ref. [6]).
In Chapter 6, we define more general statistical systems, in an arbitrary num-
ber of space dimensions. For convenience, we use the ferromagnetic language, even
though, as a consequence of universality, the results that are derived in this work
apply to much more general statistical systems. In addition to complete and con-
nected correlation functions (whose decay properties at large distance, called cluster
properties, are recalled), which we have already defined in the preceding chapters,
we introduce vertex functions, which are related to the thermodynamic potential.
The free energy and thermodynamic potential, like connected correlation functions
and vertex functions, are related by a Legendre transformation of which we discuss
a few properties.
Chapter 7 is devoted to the concept of phase transition, a concept that is far
from being trivial in the sense that a phase transition requires the interaction of an
infinite number of degrees of freedom. We first solve exactly a particular model in
the limit in which the number of space dimensions becomes infinite. In this limit,
the model exhibits a behaviour that the analysis presented in the following chapters
will identify as quasi-Gaussian or mean-field like. Then, we discuss, in general
terms, the existence of phase transitions as a function of the space dimension. We
emphasize the difference between models with discrete and continuous symmetries
in dimension two.
In Chapter 8, we examine the universal properties of phase transitions in the
quasi-Gaussian or mean-field approximations. We study the singularities of ther-
modynamic functions at the transition point as well as the large-distance behaviour
of the two-point correlation function. We summarize the universal properties in the
form of Landau’s theory [7]. We stress the peculiarities of models with continuous
 Preface vii

symmetries at low temperature due to the appearance of Goldstone modes. Finally,

we evaluate corrections to the quasi-Gaussian approximation and show that the ap-
proximation is only consistent in space dimension larger than 4 (following the lines
of Ref. [8]). We mention the possible existence of tricritical points.
In Chapter 9, we introduce the general concept of renormalization group [5] in
the spirit of the work [9]. We study the role of fixed points and their stability
properties. We exhibit a particular fixed point, the Gaussian fixed point, which
is stable in dimension larger than 4. We identify the leading perturbation to the
Gaussian fixed point in dimension ≤ 4. We discuss the possible existence of a
non-Gaussian fixed point near dimension 4.
In Chapter 10, using the assumptions introduced in Chapter 9, we show that it
is indeed possible to find a non-Gaussian fixed point in dimension d = 4 − ε [10],
both in models with reflection and rotation symmetries. We briefly introduce the
field theory methods [11, 12] that we will describe more thoroughly in the following
chapters. Finally, we present a selection of numerical results concerning critical
exponents and some universal amplitude ratios [13–17].
Chapter 11 contains a general discussion of renormalization group equations and
the properties of the corresponding fixed points, for a whole class of models that
possess more general symmetries than the reflection and rotation groups considered
so far, generalizing somewhat the results presented in [8, 18]. In particular, the
analysis leads to an interesting conjecture, relating decay of correlation functions
and stability of fixed points [8, 19].
With Chapter 12, we begin a more systematic presentation of field theory meth-
ods. Beyond a simple generalization of the perturbative methods already presented
in the preceding chapters, several new concepts are introduced like the loop expan-
sion, dimensional continuation and regularization [20].
With these technical tools, we can then justify, in Chapter 13, the asymptotic
renormalization group equations as they appear in field theory [4, 21–25]. General
universality properties follow, as well as methods of calculating universal quantities
as an expansion in powers of the deviation ε = 4 − d from dimension 4.
A class of field theories with an O(N ) orthogonal symmetry can be solved in the
N → ∞ limit, as we show in Chapter 14. All universal properties derived within
the framework of the ε-expansion can also be proved at fixed dimension, within the
framework of an expansion in powers of 1/N [26–36].
In models with continuous symmetries, phase transitions are dominated, at low
temperature and large distance, by the interaction between Goldstone (massless)
modes. The interaction can be described by the non-linear σ-model. Its study,
using the renormalization group, allows generalizing the scaling properties of the
critical theory at the transition to the whole low-temperature phase and studying
properties of the phase transition near dimension 2 [37–40].
The renormalization group of quantum field theory has an interpretation as an
asymptotic renormalization group when the relevant fixed point is close to the
Gaussian fixed point. Quite early, more general formulations of the renormalization
group have been proposed, which do not rely on such an assumption [41–42]. They
lead to functional equations that describe the evolution of the effective interaction,
viii Preface

but which are much more difficult to handle than the equations arising in field
theory. They have been used to prove renormalizability without relying on a direct
analysis of Feynman diagrams, unlike more traditional methods [43]. Moreover,
more recently, they have inspired a number of new approximation schemes, different
from the perturbative scheme of field theory [44]. Thus, for both pedagogical and
practical reasons, we have decided to describe then in this work.
Finally, in the appendix, we have collected various technical considerations use-
ful for a better understanding of the material presented in the work, and a few
additional remarks.
Contents

1 Quantum field theory and the renormalization group . . . . . . . . . 1

1.1 Quantum electrodynamics: A quantum field theory . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2 Quantum electrodynamics: The problem of infinities . . . . . . . . 4
1.3 Renormalization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.4 Quantum field theory and the renormalization group . . . . . . . . 9
1.5 A triumph of QFT: The Standard Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.6 Critical phenomena: Other infinities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.7 Kadanoff and Wilson’s renormalization group . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.8 Effective quantum field theories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2 Gaussian expectation values. Steepest descent method . . . . . . . . 19
2.1 Generating functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.2 Gaussian expectation values. Wick’s theorem . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.3 Perturbed Gaussian measure. Connected contributions . . . . . . . 24
2.4 Feynman diagrams. Connected contributions . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.5 Expectation values. Generating function. Cumulants . . . . . . . . 28
2.6 Steepest descent method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.7 Steepest descent method: Several variables, generating functions . . . 37
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
3 Universality and the continuum limit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3.1 Central limit theorem of probabilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3.2 Universality and fixed points of transformations . . . . . . . . . . 54
3.3 Random walk and Brownian motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
3.4 Random walk: Additional remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
3.5 Brownian motion and path integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
4 Classical statistical physics: One dimension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
4.1 Nearest-neighbour interactions. Transfer matrix . . . . . . . . . . 80
4.2 Correlation functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
4.3 Thermodynamic limit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
4.4 Connected functions and cluster properties . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
4.5 Statistical models: Simple examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
4.6 The Gaussian model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
x Contents

4.7 Gaussian model: The continuum limit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98

4.8 More general models: The continuum limit . . . . . . . . . . . 102
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
5 Continuum limit and path integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
5.1 Gaussian path integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
5.2 Gaussian correlations. Wick’s theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
5.3 Perturbed Gaussian measure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
5.4 Perturbative calculations: Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
6 Ferromagnetic systems. Correlation functions . . . . . . . . . . . 127
6.1 Ferromagnetic systems: Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
6.2 Correlation functions. Fourier representation . . . . . . . . . . . 133
6.3 Legendre transformation and vertex functions . . . . . . . . . . 137
6.4 Legendre transformation and steepest descent method . . . . . . . 142
6.5 Two- and four-point vertex functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
7 Phase transitions: Generalities and examples . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
7.1 Infinite temperature or independent spins . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
7.2 Phase transitions in infinite dimension . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
7.3 Universality in infinite space dimension . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
7.4 Transformations, fixed points and universality . . . . . . . . . . 161
7.5 Finite-range interactions in finite dimension . . . . . . . . . . . 163
7.6 Ising model: Transfer matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
7.7 Continuous symmetries and transfer matrix . . . . . . . . . . . 171
7.8 Continuous symmetries and Goldstone modes . . . . . . . . . . 173
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
8 Quasi-Gaussian approximation: Universality, critical dimension . . . . 179
8.1 Short-range two-spin interactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
8.2 The Gaussian model: Two-point function . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
8.3 Gaussian model and random walk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
8.4 Gaussian model and field integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
8.5 Quasi-Gaussian approximation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
8.6 The two-point function: Universality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
8.7 Quasi-Gaussian approximation and Landau’s theory . . . . . . . 199
8.8 Continuous symmetries and Goldstone modes . . . . . . . . . . 200
8.9 Corrections to the quasi-Gaussian approximation . . . . . . . . . 202
8.10 Mean-field approximation and corrections . . . . . . . . . . . 207
8.11 Tricritical points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
9 Renormalization group: General formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
9.1 Statistical field theory. Landau’s Hamiltonian . . . . . . . . . . 218
9.2 Connected correlation functions. Vertex functions . . . . . . . . 220
9.3 Renormalization group: General idea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
9.4 Hamiltonian flow: Fixed points, stability . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
9.5 The Gaussian fixed point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
 Contents xi

9.6 Eigen-perturbations: General analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234

9.7 A non-Gaussian fixed point: The ε-expansion . . . . . . . . . . 237
9.8 Eigenvalues and dimensions of local polynomials . . . . . . . . . 241
10 Perturbative renormalization group: Explicit calculations . . . . . . 243
10.1 Critical Hamiltonian and perturbative expansion . . . . . . . . 243
10.2 Feynman diagrams at one-loop order . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
10.3 Fixed point and critical behaviour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
10.4 Critical domain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
10.5 Models with O(N ) orthogonal symmetry . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
10.6 Renormalization group near dimension 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
10.7 Universal quantities: Numerical results . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
11 Renormalization group: N -component fields . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
11.1 Renormalization group: General remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
11.2 Gradient flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
11.3 Model with cubic anisotropy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
11.4 Explicit general expressions: RG analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
11.5 Exercise: General model with two parameters . . . . . . . . . . 281
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
12 Statistical field theory: Perturbative expansion . . . . . . . . . . 285
12.1 Generating functionals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
12.2 Gaussian field theory. Wick’s theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
12.3 Perturbative expansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
12.4 Loop expansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
12.5 Dimensional continuation and regularization . . . . . . . . . . 299
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
13 The σ 4 field theory near dimension 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
13.1 Effective Hamiltonian. Renormalization . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
13.2 Renormalization group equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
13.3 Solution of RGE: The ε-expansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
13.4 Effective and renormalized interactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
13.5 The critical domain above Tc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
14 The O(N ) symmetric (φ2 )2 field theory in the large N limit . . . . 329
14.1 Algebraic preliminaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
14.2 Integration over the field φ: The determinant . . . . . . . . . . 331
14.3 The limit N → ∞: The critical domain . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
14.4 The (φ2 )2 field theory for N → ∞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
14.5 Singular part of the free energy and equation of state . . . . . . 340
14.6 The λλ and φ2 φ2  two-point functions . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
14.7 Renormalization group and corrections to scaling . . . . . . . . 345
14.8 The 1/N expansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
14.9 The exponent η at order 1/N . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
14.10 The non-linear σ-model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
15 The non-linear σ-model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
15.1 The non-linear σ-model on the lattice . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
15.2 Low-temperature expansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
xii Contents

15.3 Formal continuum limit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360

15.4 Regularization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361
15.5 Zero-momentum or IR divergences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362
15.6 Renormalization group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
15.7 Solution of the RGE. Fixed points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368
15.8 Correlation functions: Scaling form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370
15.9 The critical domain: Critical exponents . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
15.10 Dimension 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
15.11 The (φ2 )2 field theory at low temperature . . . . . . . . . . . 377
16 Functional renormalization group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381
16.1 Partial field integration and effective Hamiltonian . . . . . . . . 381
16.2 High-momentum mode integration and RGE . . . . . . . . . . 390
16.3 Perturbative solution: φ4 theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396
16.4 RGE: Standard form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399
16.5 Dimension 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402
16.6 Fixed point: ε-expansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
16.7 Local stability of the fixed point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411
Appendix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417
A1 Technical results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417
A2 Fourier transformation: Decay and regularity . . . . . . . . . . 421
A3 Phase transitions: General remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426
A4 1/N expansion: Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431
A5 Functional renormalization group: Complements . . . . . . . . . 433
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 447
1 Quantum field theory and the renormalization group

Without a minimal understanding of quantum or statistical field theories (formally

related by continuation to imaginary time), the theoretical basis of a notable part
of twentieth century physics remains incomprehensible.
Indeed, field theory, in its various incarnations, describes fundamental interac-
tions at the microscopic scale, singular properties of phase transitions (like liquid–
vapour, ferromagnetic, superfluid, separation of binary mixture,...) at the transition
point, properties of diluted quantum gases beyond the model of Bose–Einstein con-
densation, statistical properties of long polymeric chains (as well as self-avoiding
random walks), or percolation, and so on.
In fact, quantum field theory offers at present the most comprehensive framework
to discuss physical systems that are characterized by a large number of strongly
interacting local degrees of freedom.
However, at its birth, quantum field theory was confronted with a somewhat
unexpected problem, the problem of infinities. The calculation of most physical
processes led to infinite results. An empirical recipe, renormalization, was eventually
discovered that allowed extracting from divergent expressions finite predictions. The
procedure would hardly have been convincing if the predictions were not confirmed
with increasing precision by experiment. A new concept, the renormalization group
related in some way to the renormalization procedure, but whose meaning was only
fully appreciated in the more general framework of the theory of phase transitions,
has led, later, to a satisfactory interpretation of the origin and role of renormalizable
quantum field theories and of the renormalization process.
This first chapter tries to present a brief history of the origin and the development
of quantum field theory, and of the evolution of our interpretation of renormalization
and the renormalization group, which has led to our present understanding.
This history has two aspects, one directly related to the theory of fundamental
interactions that describes physics at the microscopic scale, and another one re-
lated to the theory of phase transitions in macroscopic physics and their universal
properties. That two so vastly different domains of physics have required the de-
velopment of the same theoretical framework, is extremely surprising. It is one of
the attractions of theoretical physics that such relations can sometimes be found.

A few useful dates:

1925 Heisenberg proposes a quantum mechanics, under the form of a mechanics
of matrices.
1926 Schrödinger publishes his famous equation that bases quantum mechanics
on the solution of a non-relativistic wave equation. Since relativity theory was al-
ready well established when quantum mechanics was formulated, this may surprise.
2 Quantum field theory and the renormalization group

In fact, for accidental reasons, the spectrum of the hydrogen atom is better de-
scribed by a non-relativistic wave equation than by a relativistic equation without
spin,∗ the Klein–Gordon equation (1926).
1928 Dirac introduces a relativistic wave equation that incorporates the spin 1/2
of the electron, which describes much better the spectrum of the hydrogen atom,
and opens the way for the construction of a relativistic quantum theory. In the
two following years, Heisenberg and Pauli lay out, in a series of articles, the general
principles of quantum field theory.
1934 First correct calculation in quantum electrodynamics (Weisskopf) and con-
firmation of the existence of divergences, called ultraviolet (UV) since they are due,
in this calculation, to the short-wavelength photons.
1937 Landau publishes his general theory of phase transitions.
1944 Exact solution of the two-dimensional Ising model by Onsager.
1947 Measurement of the so-called Lamb shift by Lamb and Retherford, which
agrees well with the prediction of quantum electrodynamics (QED) after cancella-
tion between infinities.
1947–1949 Construction of an empirical general method to eliminate divergences
called renormalization (Feynman, Schwinger, Tomonaga, Dyson, et al).
1954 Yang and Mills propose a non-Abelian generalization of Maxwell’s equations
based on non-Abelian gauge symmetries (associated to non-commutative groups).
1954–1956 Discovery of a formal property of quantum field theory character-
ized by the existence of a renormalization group whose deep meaning is not fully
appreciated (Peterman–Stückelberg, Gell-Mann–Low, Bogoliubov–Shirkov).
1967–1975 The Standard Model, a renormalizable quantum field theory based on
the notions of non-Abelian gauge symmetry and spontaneous symmetry breaking,
is proposed, which provides a complete description of all fundamental interactions,
but gravitation.
1971–1972 After the initial work of Kadanoff (1966), Wilson, Wegner, et al,
develop a more general concept of renormalization group, which includes the field
theory renormalization group as a limit, and which explains universality properties
of continuous phase transitions (liquid–vapour, superfluidity, ferromagnetism) and
later of geometrical models like self-avoiding random walks or percolation.
1972–1975 Several groups, in particular Brézin, Le Guillou and Zinn-Justin,
develop powerful quantum field theory techniques that allow a proof of universality
properties of critical phenomena and calculating universal quantities.
1973 Using renormalization group arguments, Politzer and Gross–Wilczek es-
tablish the property of asymptotic freedom of a class of non-Abelian gauge theories,
which allows explaining the free-particle behaviour of quarks within nucleons.
1975–1976 Additional information about universal properties of phase transi-
tions are derived from the study of the non-linear σ model and the corresponding
d − 2 expansion (Polyakov, Brézin–Zinn-Justin).

∗
intrinsic angular momentum of particles, that takes half-integer (fermions) or
integer (bosons) values in units of
.
 Quantum field theory and the renormalization group 3

1977–1980 Following a suggestion of Parisi, Nickel calculates several successive

terms of the series expansion of renormalization group functions, by field theory
methods. Applying summation methods to these series, Le Guillou and Zinn-Justin
obtain the first precise estimates of critical exponents in three-dimensional phase
transitions from renormalization group methods.

1.1 Quantum electrodynamics: A quantum field theory

Quantum electrodynamics (QED) describes, in a quantum and relativistic frame-

work, interactions between all electrically charged particles and the electromagnetic
field. QED is not a theory of individual particles, as in non-relativistic quantum
mechanics, but a quantum field theory (QFT). Indeed, it is also a quantum exten-
sion of a classical relativistic field theory: Maxwell electromagnetism in which the
dynamical quantities are fields, the electric and magnetic fields. Moreover, the dis-
covery that to the electromagnetic field were associated quanta, the photons, which
are massless spin one particles, has naturally led to the postulate that all particles
were also manifestations of quantum fields.
But such a theory differs radically from a particle theory in the sense that fields
have an infinite number of degrees of freedom. Indeed, a point particle in classical
mechanics has three degrees of freedom; it is characterized by its three Cartesian
coordinates. By contrast, a field is characterized by its values at all space points,
which thus constitutes an infinite number of data. The non-conservation of the
number of particles in high-energy collisions is a manifestation of such a property.
Moreover, the field theories that describe microscopic physics have a locality prop-
erty, a notion that generalizes the notion of point-like particle: they display no
short-distance structure.
The combination of an infinite number of degrees of freedom and locality explain
why QFT has somewhat ‘exotic’ properties.
Gauge symmetries. In what follows, we mention gauge symmetry and gauge the-
ories, the simplest example being provided by QED. In non-relativistic quantum
mechanics, in the presence of a magnetic field, gauge invariance corresponds simply
to the possibility of adding a gradient term to the vector potential without affect-
ing the equations of motion. In non-relativistic quantum mechanics, physics is not
changed if one multiplies the wave function by a phase factor eiθ (corresponding
to a transformation of the Abelian, or commutative, group U (1)). In the case of a
charged particle, in the presence of a magnetic field, one discovers a much larger
symmetry, a gauge symmetry: it is possible to change the phase of the wave function
at each point in space independently,

ψ(x) → eiθ(x) ψ(x),

by modifying in a correlated way the vector potential.

Unlike an ordinary symmetry that corresponds to transforming in a global way
all dynamical variables, a gauge symmetry corresponds to independent transfor-
mations at each point in space (or space-time). Gauge symmetry is a dynamical
4 Quantum field theory and the renormalization group

principle: it generates interactions instead of simply relating them as an ordinary or

global symmetry. To render a theory gauge invariant, it is necessary to introduce a
vector potential coupled in a universal way to all charged particles. In a relativistic
quantum theory, this vector potential takes the form of a gauge field corresponding
to a spin-one particle, the photon in the case of QED.
Units in relativistic quantum theory. The phenomena that we evoke below are char-
acteristic of a relativistic and very quantum limit. It is thus physically meaningful
to take the speed of light, c, and Planck’s constant,
, as units. As a consequence,
in a relativistic theory mass-scales M , momenta p and energies E can be related by
the speed of light c:
E = pc = M c2

and, thus, expressed in a common unit like the electron volt (eV). It is then equiv-
alent to talk about large momenta or large energies.
Moreover, in a quantum theory momentum-scales p can be related to length-scales
 by Planck’s constant,
p =
.

As a consequence, high-energy experiments probe properties of matter at short

distance.

1.2 Quantum electrodynamics: The problem of infinities

The discovery of the Dirac equation in 1928 opened the way to the construction
of a quantum and relativistic theory, allowing a more precise description of the
electromagnetic interactions between protons and electrons. This theory, whose
principles were established by Heisenberg and Pauli (1929–1930), was a QFT and
not a theory of individual particles, because the discovery that the electromagnetic
field was associated to quanta suggested that, conversely, all particles could be
manifestations of the existence of underlying fields.
After the articles of Heisenberg and Pauli, Oppenheimer and Waller (1930) pub-
lished independent calculations of the effect of the electromagnetic field on the
electron propagation, at first-order in the fine structure constant, a dimensionless
constant that characterizes the intensity of the electromagnetic interactions,

e2
α= ≈ 1/137 , (1.1)
4π
c

where e is the electron charge, defined in terms of the Coulomb potential parame-
trized as a function of the separation R as e2 /4πR. Since this constant α is nu-
merically small (a meaningful statement because it is a dimensionless quantity), a
first-order calculation is reasonable.
The physical process responsible of this contribution is a process typical of a
QFT, the emission and absorption by an electron of energy-momentum (or quadri-
momentum) q of a virtual photon of quadri-momentum k, as represented by the
 Quantum field theory and the renormalization group 5

q q−k q
Fig. 1.1 Feynman diagram: A contribution to electron propagation, dotted line for
photon, full line for electron.

Feynman diagram in Figure 1.1 (a representation proposed by Feynman several

years later).
One possible motivation for undertaking such a calculation was a determination
of the first corrections to the electron mass in QED and the solution of the puzzle of
the ‘classical model’ of the electron. In a relativistic theory, the mass of a particle
is proportional to its rest energy. This thus includes the potential self-energy. But
it was well-known that the classical model of the electron as a charged sphere of
radius R led to a result that diverged as e2 /R in the zero R limit. It could have
been hoped that quantum mechanics, which is a theory of wave functions, would
solve the problem generated by the point-like nature of the electron.
However, the first results were paradoxical. Not only was the contribution to the
mass still infinite, but it diverged even more strongly than in the classical model:
introducing a bound Λc2 on the photon energy (this is equivalent to modifying the
theory at a short-distance R =
/cΛ), one found a quadratic divergence Λ2 ∝ 1/R2 .
In fact, it was soon discovered that these results were wrong. Indeed, perturbative
calculations with the technical tools of the time were laborious. The formalism
was not explicitly relativistic; the role of the ‘holes’ in Dirac’s theory (predicted
to be anti-electrons or positrons in 1931 and experimentally discovered in 1932)
was unclear, and gauge invariance was at the origin of additional difficulties. Only
in 1934 was the correct result published by Weisskopf (after a last error had been
pointed out by Furry). It confirmed that the contribution was definitively infinite,
even though it diverged less strongly than in the classical model. The quadratic
divergence was replaced by a less severe logarithmic divergence and the contribution
to the electron mass at order α was found to be given by

α
δmQED = −3 m ln(mRc/
),
2π

where m is the electron mass for α = 0.

The divergence is generated by the summation over virtual photons of arbitrary
high momenta (due to the absence of a short-distance structure), which explains
the denomination of ultraviolet (UV) divergences. Moreover, conservation of prob-
abilities implies that all processes contribute additively.
The conclusion was that QFT was less singular than the classical model. Never-
theless, the problem of infinities was not solved and no straightforward modification
could be found to save QFT.
These divergences were understood to have a profound meaning, seeming to be
an unavoidable consequence of unitarity (conservation of probabilities) and locality
6 Quantum field theory and the renormalization group

(point-like particles with contact interactions). Moreover, it appeared extremely

difficult to conceive of a consistent relativistic theory with extended particles.
The problem thus was very deep and touched at the essence of the theory itself.
QED was an incomplete theory, but it seemed difficult to modify it without sac-
rificing some fundamental physical principle. It was possible to render the theory
finite by abandoning unitarity and, thus, conservation of probabilities (as proposed
by Dirac (1942)), but the physics consequences seemed hardly acceptable. What is
often called Pauli–Villars’ regularization, a somewhat ad hoc and temporary proce-
dure to render the perturbative expansion finite before renormalization (see below),
has this nature. It seemed even more difficult to incorporate the theory into a rela-
tivistic, non-local extension (which would correspond to giving an internal structure
to particles), though Heisenberg proposed in 1938 the introduction of a fundamen-
tal length. In fact, it is only in the 1980s that possible candidates for a non-local
extension of QFT were proposed in the form of superstring theories.
The crisis was so severe that Wheeler (1937) and Heisenberg (1943) proposed
abandoning QFT altogether in favour of a theory of physical observables, in fact
scattering data between particles: the S-matrix theory, an idea that became quite
fashionable in the 1960s in the theory of strong interactions (those that generate
nuclear forces).

Infinities and the problem of charged scalar bosons. After the first QED calculations,
some pragmatic physicists started calculating other physical quantities, exploring
the form and nature of infinities. Let me mention here another important work of
Weisskopf (1939) in which the author shows that logarithmic divergences persist
to all orders in the perturbative expansion, that is, in the expansion in powers of
α. But he also notes that in the case of scalar (i.e., spinless) charged particles the
situation is much worse: the divergences are quadratic, which is disastrous. Indeed,
if the divergences are suppressed by some momentum cut-off Λ =
/Rc related to
some new, unknown, physics and if Λ/m is not too large (and for some time 100
MeV, which is the range of nuclear forces, seemed a plausible candidate), then the
product α ln(Λ/m) remains small: a logarithmic divergence produces undetermined
but nevertheless small corrections, but this is no longer the case for quadratic di-
vergences. This result could have been understood as an indication that scalar
particles cannot be considered as fundamental.
Note that the problem is more relevant than ever since the Standard Model that
describes all experimental results up to the highest available energies in colliders,
contains a scalar particle, the Higgs boson, and is now called the fine tuning or hi-
erarchy problem. Indeed, to cancel infinities, it is necessary to adjust one parameter
of the initial theory with a precision related to the ratio of the physical mass and
the large-momentum cut-off, something that is not natural. The problem has now
become specially severe since physicists have realized that mass-scales as large as
1015 (the so-called unification mass) or 1019 GeV (Planck’s mass) can be involved.
It is one of the main motivations for the introduction of supersymmetry (a symme-
try that, surprisingly, relates bosons to fermions). The experimental discovery of
the Higgs boson and the understanding of its properties are among the main goals
 Quantum field theory and the renormalization group 7

of the new proton accelerator, the Large Hadron Collider or LHC, presently under
construction at CERN near Geneva (first beam expected in late 2007).

1.3 Renormalization

Calculating a number of different physical quantities, physicists noticed that, al-

though many physical quantities were divergent, it was always the same kind of
divergent contributions that appeared. One could thus find combinations that were
finite (Weisskopf 1936). However, the physical meaning of such a property, the can-
cellation of infinities, was somewhat obscure. In fact, in the absence of any deeper
understanding of the problem, little progress could be expected.
Each time physicists are confronted with such conceptual difficulties, some clue
must eventually come from experiment.
Indeed, in 1947 Lamb and Retheford measured precisely the separation between
the 2s1/2 2p1/2 levels of the hydrogen atom, while Rabi’s group at Columbia mea-
sured the anomalous moment of the electron. Remarkably enough, it was possible
to organize the calculation of the Lamb shift in such the way that infinities cancel
(first approximate calculation by Bethe) and the result was found to be in very
good agreement with experiment. Shortly after, Schwinger obtained the leading
contribution to the anomalous magnetic moment of the electron.
These results initiated extraordinary theoretical developments (earlier work of
Kramers concerning the mass renormalization of the extended classical electron
proved to be important to generalize the idea of cancellation of infinities by sub-
traction, to the idea of renormalization), and in 1949 Dyson, relying in particular
on the work of Feynman, Schwinger and Tomonaga, gave a proof of the cancellation
of infinities to all orders in the perturbative expansion. What became known as the
renormalization theory led in QED to finite results for all physical observables.
The general idea is the following: one begins with an initial theory called bare,
which depends on parameters like the bare mass m0 and the bare charge e0 of the
electron (mass and charge in the absence of interactions), or equivalently bare fine
structure constant α0 = e20 /4π
c. Moreover, one introduces a large-momentum cut-
off cΛ (which corresponds to modifying in a somewhat arbitrary and unphysical way
the theory at a very short distance of order
/cΛ). One then calculates the physical
values (i.e., those one measures), called renormalized, of the same quantities (as the
observed charge e and, thus, the fine structure constant α, and the physical mass
m) as functions of the bare parameters and the cut-off:
α = α0 − β2 α20 ln(Λ/m0 ) + · · · ,
m = m0 − γ1 m0 α ln(ΛC1 /m0 ) + · · · .
(β2 , γ1 and C1 are three numerical constants.) One inverts these relations, now
expressing bare quantities as functions of the renormalized one. In this substitution,
one exchanges, for example, the bare constant α0 with the physical or renormalized
constant α as the expansion parameter:
α0 = α + β2 α2 ln(Λ/m) + · · · ,
m0 = m + γ1 mα ln(ΛC1 /m) + · · · .
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