Okay, here are the solutions to the assignment questions presented in the image.

Q1. What are Sensors and actuators? Also discuss different applications of Encoder and
feedback devices.
Sensors: A sensor is a device that detects or measures a physical property and records,
indicates, or otherwise responds to it. In robotics, sensors provide information about the robot's
internal state (e.g., joint positions, motor temperature) or its external environment (e.g.,
presence of objects, distance, forces). They act as the robot's "senses," allowing it to perceive
its surroundings and its own status.
●​ Examples in Robotics: Position sensors (encoders, potentiometers), velocity sensors
(tachometers), force/torque sensors, proximity sensors (infrared, ultrasonic), vision
sensors (cameras), temperature sensors.
Actuators: An actuator is a component of a machine that is responsible for moving or
controlling a mechanism or system. It takes energy (usually electrical, hydraulic, or pneumatic)
and converts it into motion or force. In robotics, actuators are the "muscles" that drive the robot's
joints and end-effectors.
●​ Examples in Robotics: Electric motors (DC servo, stepper, brushless DC), hydraulic
cylinders/motors, pneumatic cylinders/motors, shape memory alloys, piezoelectric
actuators.
Applications of Encoders and Feedback Devices: Encoders are common feedback devices
used primarily for measuring position and velocity. Feedback devices, in general, are crucial for
closed-loop control systems in robotics, enabling precision, stability, and adaptability.
1.​ Position Control: Encoders (incremental or absolute) are mounted on motor shafts or
joints to measure the exact angular or linear position of the robot's links. This feedback
allows the controller to move the robot arm accurately to desired locations and follow
planned trajectories.
2.​ Velocity Control: By differentiating the position signal from an encoder over time or by
using tachometers, the velocity of joints can be determined. This feedback is essential for
controlling the speed of robot movements, ensuring smooth motion, and preventing
overshoot.
3.​ Force/Torque Control: While encoders don't directly measure force, they are part of
systems that do. Force/torque sensors provide feedback about the forces exerted by the
robot on its environment (or vice versa). This is critical for tasks like assembly, polishing,
deburring, or safe human-robot interaction, allowing the robot to adjust its motion based
on contact forces.
4.​ Environment Perception/Mapping: Feedback devices like LiDAR (Light Detection and
Ranging) or camera systems (vision feedback) provide information about the external
world, enabling robots to navigate, avoid obstacles, and identify objects.
5.​ Safety and Calibration: Feedback devices ensure the robot operates within safe limits
(e.g., joint limits detected by encoders or limit switches) and can be used for robot
calibration routines to improve accuracy.
Q2. Explain briefly Lagrangian and Newton-Euler formulations for serial robotic
manipulators.
Both Lagrangian and Newton-Euler formulations are methods used to derive the dynamic
equations of motion for robotic manipulators. These equations relate the joint torques/forces
applied by the actuators to the resulting motion (positions, velocities, accelerations) of the
robot's links, considering inertial, Coriolis, centrifugal, and gravitational effects.
Lagrangian Formulation:
●​ Basis: Based on principles of energy (work-energy). It uses scalar quantities: kinetic
 energy (K) and potential energy (P) of the entire manipulator system.
●​ Procedure:
1.​ Define generalized coordinates (q) describing the robot's configuration (typically
joint angles or displacements).
2.​ Calculate the total kinetic energy (K) of the manipulator as a function of q and
\dot{q} (joint velocities).
3.​ Calculate the total potential energy (P) of the manipulator as a function of q.
4.​ Form the Lagrangian function: L = K - P.
5.​ Apply the Euler-Lagrange equations: \tau_i = \frac{d}{dt}\left(\frac{\partial L}{\partial
\dot{q}_i}\right) - \frac{\partial L}{\partial q_i} where \tau_i is the generalized force
(torque or force) corresponding to the i-th generalized coordinate q_i.
●​ Characteristics: Provides a systematic way to derive the equations. Results in a
closed-form, compact set of second-order differential equations: M(q)\ddot{q} + C(q,
\dot{q})\dot{q} + G(q) = \tau. Computationally intensive for complex robots if derived
symbolically by hand, but insightful for control design. Less efficient for real-time recursive
computation compared to Newton-Euler.
Newton-Euler Formulation:
●​ Basis: Based on Newton's second law (F=ma) and Euler's equations for rotational motion
(N = I\alpha + \omega \times (I\omega)), applied to each link of the manipulator.
●​ Procedure:
1.​ Uses vector quantities (forces and moments).
2.​ Typically implemented recursively.
3.​ Forward Recursion: Starting from the base (link 0) and moving outwards to the
end-effector (link n), calculate the velocity and acceleration (linear and angular) of
each link's center of mass, iteratively using the kinematic relationships and the
motion of the previous link.
4.​ Backward Recursion: Starting from the end-effector (link n) and moving inwards to
the base (link 0), calculate the forces and moments exerted on each link by the
subsequent link, using Newton's and Euler's laws for each link's free-body diagram.
The forces/moments at the joints are then determined, which correspond to the
required actuator torques/forces (\tau).
●​ Characteristics: Computationally efficient, especially in its recursive form, making it
suitable for real-time dynamic simulations and control. Provides explicit values for
inter-link forces and moments, which can be useful for mechanical design. The structure
of the formulation is less compact visually compared to the matrix form derived from the
Lagrangian approach.
Q3. Velocity Transformation Calculation
We are given the homogeneous transformation matrix from frame {B} to frame {A}:
{}^A\hat{T}_B = \begin{bmatrix} 0.866 & -0.500 & 0.000 & 10.0 \\ 0.500 & 0.866 & 0.000 & 0.0 \\
0.000 & 0.000 & 1.000 & 5.0 \\ 0 & 0 & 0 & 1 \end{bmatrix} And the spatial velocity (twist) of
frame {A} expressed in frame {A} coordinates: {}^A V_A = \begin{bmatrix} {}^A \omega_A \\ {}^A
v_{OA} \end{bmatrix} = \begin{bmatrix} 0.0 \\ 2.0 \\ -3.0 \\ 1.414 \\ 1.414 \\ 0.0 \end{bmatrix} We
need to find the 6 \times 1 velocity vector with reference point the origin of {B}. This usually
means finding the spatial velocity of frame {B}, expressed in frame {B} coordinates, {}^B V_B.
The relationship between the spatial velocity of frame {A} expressed in {A} ({}^A V_A) and the
spatial velocity of frame {B} expressed in {B} ({}^B V_B), assuming they are rigidly connected by
the transformation {}^A T_B, is given by: {}^B V_B = Ad_{{}^B T_A} {}^A V_A where Ad_{{}^B
T_A} is the Adjoint transformation matrix associated with {}^B T_A = ({}^A T_B)^{-1}.
First, find {}^B T_A: {}^A T_B = \begin{bmatrix} R & p \\ 0 & 1 \end{bmatrix} \implies {}^B T_A =
({}^A T_B)^{-1} = \begin{bmatrix} R^T & -R^T p \\ 0 & 1 \end{bmatrix} With R = \begin{bmatrix}
0.866 & -0.500 & 0.000 \\ 0.500 & 0.866 & 0.000 \\ 0.000 & 0.000 & 1.000 \end{bmatrix} and p =
\begin{bmatrix} 10.0 \\ 0.0 \\ 5.0 \end{bmatrix}. R^T = \begin{bmatrix} 0.866 & 0.500 & 0.000 \\
-0.500 & 0.866 & 0.000 \\ 0.000 & 0.000 & 1.000 \end{bmatrix} -R^T p = - \begin{bmatrix} 0.866
& 0.500 & 0.000 \\ -0.500 & 0.866 & 0.000 \\ 0.000 & 0.000 & 1.000 \end{bmatrix}
\begin{bmatrix} 10.0 \\ 0.0 \\ 5.0 \end{bmatrix} = - \begin{bmatrix} 8.66 \\ -5.00 \\ 5.00
\end{bmatrix} = \begin{bmatrix} -8.66 \\ 5.00 \\ -5.00 \end{bmatrix} Let {}^B p_{A,B} =
\begin{bmatrix} -8.66 \\ 5.00 \\ -5.00 \end{bmatrix} be the vector from the origin of {B} to the
origin of {A}, expressed in {B}. So, {}^B T_A = \begin{bmatrix} R^T & {}^B p_{A,B} \\ 0 & 1
\end{bmatrix}.
The Adjoint matrix is: Ad_{{}^B T_A} = \begin{bmatrix} R^T & 0 \\ [^B p_{A,B}] R^T & R^T
\end{bmatrix} where [^B p_{A,B}] is the skew-symmetric matrix of {}^B p_{A,B}: [^B p_{A,B}] =
\begin{bmatrix} 0 & -(-5.00) & 5.00 \\ -5.00 & 0 & -(-8.66) \\ -5.00 & -8.66 & 0 \end{bmatrix} =
\begin{bmatrix} 0 & 5.00 & 5.00 \\ -5.00 & 0 & 8.66 \\ -5.00 & -8.66 & 0 \end{bmatrix} Now
calculate the 3 \times 3 block [^B p_{A,B}] R^T: \begin{bmatrix} 0 & 5.00 & 5.00 \\ -5.00 & 0 &
8.66 \\ -5.00 & -8.66 & 0 \end{bmatrix} \begin{bmatrix} 0.866 & 0.500 & 0.000 \\ -0.500 & 0.866
& 0.000 \\ 0.000 & 0.000 & 1.000 \end{bmatrix} = \begin{bmatrix} -2.5 & 4.33 & 5.0 \\ -4.33 &
-2.5 & 8.66 \\ 0 & -10.0 & 0 \end{bmatrix} (Using 0.866 \approx \sqrt{3}/2 and 0.5 = 1/2, and
calculations like 5(0.866)=4.33, -5(0.866)=-4.33, -8.66(-0.5)=4.33, -5(0.866)+4.33=0,
-5(0.5)=-2.5, -8.66(0.866)=-7.5, so -2.5-7.5=-10.0).
The Adjoint matrix is: Ad_{{}^B T_A} = \begin{bmatrix} 0.866 & 0.500 & 0.000 & 0 & 0 & 0 \\
-0.500 & 0.866 & 0.000 & 0 & 0 & 0 \\ 0.000 & 0.000 & 1.000 & 0 & 0 & 0 \\ -2.5 & 4.33 & 5.0 &
0.866 & 0.500 & 0.000 \\ -4.33 & -2.5 & 8.66 & -0.500 & 0.866 & 0.000 \\ 0 & -10.0 & 0 & 0.000
& 0.000 & 1.000 \end{bmatrix} Now, calculate {}^B V_B = Ad_{{}^B T_A} {}^A V_A: {}^B V_B =
\begin{bmatrix} 0.866 & 0.500 & 0.000 & 0 & 0 & 0 \\ -0.500 & 0.866 & 0.000 & 0 & 0 & 0 \\
0.000 & 0.000 & 1.000 & 0 & 0 & 0 \\ -2.5 & 4.33 & 5.0 & 0.866 & 0.500 & 0.000 \\ -4.33 & -2.5 &
8.66 & -0.500 & 0.866 & 0.000 \\ 0 & -10.0 & 0 & 0.000 & 0.000 & 1.000 \end{bmatrix}
\begin{bmatrix} 0.0 \\ 2.0 \\ -3.0 \\ 1.414 \\ 1.414 \\ 0.0 \end{bmatrix} Calculate the components:
●​ \omega_{Bx} = 0.866(0) + 0.500(2.0) + 0.000(-3.0) = 1.0
●​ \omega_{By} = -0.500(0) + 0.866(2.0) + 0.000(-3.0) = 1.732
●​ \omega_{Bz} = 0.000(0) + 0.000(2.0) + 1.000(-3.0) = -3.0
●​ v_{OBx} = -2.5(0) + 4.33(2.0) + 5.0(-3.0) + 0.866(1.414) + 0.500(1.414) + 0.000(0)
v_{OBx} = 0 + 8.66 - 15.0 + 1.224 + 0.707 + 0 = -4.409
●​ v_{OBy} = -4.33(0) - 2.5(2.0) + 8.66(-3.0) - 0.500(1.414) + 0.866(1.414) + 0.000(0)
v_{OBy} = 0 - 5.0 - 25.98 - 0.707 + 1.224 + 0 = -30.463 (Correction: Re-calculating -5 -
25.98 - 0.707 + 1.224 = -29.463)
●​ v_{OBz} = 0(0) - 10.0(2.0) + 0(-3.0) + 0.000(1.414) + 0.000(1.414) + 1.000(0) v_{OBz} = 0
- 20.0 + 0 + 0 + 0 + 0 = -20.0
Resulting velocity vector for frame {B} origin, expressed in {B}: {}^B V_B = \begin{bmatrix} {}^B
\omega_B \\ {}^B v_{OB} \end{bmatrix} = \begin{bmatrix} 1.000 \\ 1.732 \\ -3.000 \\ -4.409 \\
-29.463 \\ -20.000 \end{bmatrix}
Q4. Trajectory Planning Calculation
We are asked to calculate segment velocities, blend times, and linear times for a trajectory
passing through points 10^\circ, 35^\circ, 25^\circ, 10^\circ with segment durations T_1=2s,
T_2=1s, T_3=3s, and a blend acceleration a = 50^\circ/s^2. Assuming this means designing
independent LSPB (Linear Segment with Parabolic Blends) trajectories for each segment,
starting and ending with zero velocity.
Segment 1: \theta_{start}=10^\circ, \theta_{end}=35^\circ, \Delta\theta_1 = 25^\circ, T_1 = 2s,
a=50^\circ/s^2.
●​ Check condition for trapezoidal profile: a T_1^2 \ge 4 |\Delta\theta_1|. 50 \times (2)^2 =
200. 4 \times 25 = 100. Since 200 \ge 100, a trapezoidal profile (with constant velocity
phase) is possible and required to meet the time T_1.
●​ Calculate cruise velocity V_1: V_1 = \frac{aT_1 - \sqrt{a^2 T_1^2 - 4a|\Delta\theta_1|}}{2}
= \frac{50(2) - \sqrt{50^2(2^2) - 4(50)(25)}}{2} V_1 = \frac{100 - \sqrt{10000 - 5000}}{2} =
\frac{100 - \sqrt{5000}}{2} = \frac{100 - 70.71}{2} = 14.645^\circ/s.
●​ Blend time t_{b1} = V_1 / a = 14.645 / 50 = 0.293s.
●​ Linear time t_{lin1} = T_1 - 2 t_{b1} = 2 - 2(0.293) = 2 - 0.586 = 1.414s.
●​ Results Segment 1: Velocity V_1 = 14.645^\circ/s, Blend time t_{b1} = 0.293s, Linear
time t_{lin1} = 1.414s.
Segment 2: \theta_{start}=35^\circ, \theta_{end}=25^\circ, \Delta\theta_2 = -10^\circ, T_2 = 1s,
a=50^\circ/s^2.
●​ Check condition: a T_2^2 \ge 4 |\Delta\theta_2|. 50 \times (1)^2 = 50. 4 \times |-10| = 40.
Since 50 \ge 40, a trapezoidal profile is possible.
●​ Calculate cruise velocity magnitude |V_2|: |V_2| = \frac{aT_2 - \sqrt{a^2 T_2^2 -
4a|\Delta\theta_2|}}{2} = \frac{50(1) - \sqrt{50^2(1^2) - 4(50)(10)}}{2} |V_2| = \frac{50 -
\sqrt{2500 - 2000}}{2} = \frac{50 - \sqrt{500}}{2} = \frac{50 - 22.36}{2} = 13.82^\circ/s.
●​ Since \Delta\theta_2 is negative, V_2 = -13.82^\circ/s.
●​ Blend time t_{b2} = |V_2| / a = 13.82 / 50 = 0.276s.
●​ Linear time t_{lin2} = T_2 - 2 t_{b2} = 1 - 2(0.276) = 1 - 0.552 = 0.448s.
●​ Results Segment 2: Velocity V_2 = -13.82^\circ/s, Blend time t_{b2} = 0.276s, Linear
time t_{lin2} = 0.448s.
Segment 3: \theta_{start}=25^\circ, \theta_{end}=10^\circ, \Delta\theta_3 = -15^\circ, T_3 = 3s,
a=50^\circ/s^2.
●​ Check condition: a T_3^2 \ge 4 |\Delta\theta_3|. 50 \times (3)^2 = 450. 4 \times |-15| = 60.
Since 450 \ge 60, a trapezoidal profile is possible.
●​ Calculate cruise velocity magnitude |V_3|: |V_3| = \frac{aT_3 - \sqrt{a^2 T_3^2 -
4a|\Delta\theta_3|}}{2} = \frac{50(3) - \sqrt{50^2(3^2) - 4(50)(15)}}{2} |V_3| = \frac{150 -
\sqrt{22500 - 3000}}{2} = \frac{150 - \sqrt{19500}}{2} = \frac{150 - 139.64}{2} =
5.18^\circ/s.
●​ Since \Delta\theta_3 is negative, V_3 = -5.18^\circ/s.
●​ Blend time t_{b3} = |V_3| / a = 5.18 / 50 = 0.104s.
●​ Linear time t_{lin3} = T_3 - 2 t_{b3} = 3 - 2(0.104) = 3 - 0.208 = 2.792s.
●​ Results Segment 3: Velocity V_3 = -5.18^\circ/s, Blend time t_{b3} = 0.104s, Linear time
t_{lin3} = 2.792s.
Summary:
●​ Segment 1: V_1 = 14.645^\circ/s, t_{b1} = 0.293s, t_{lin1} = 1.414s
●​ Segment 2: V_2 = -13.82^\circ/s, t_{b2} = 0.276s, t_{lin2} = 0.448s
●​ Segment 3: V_3 = -5.18^\circ/s, t_{b3} = 0.104s, t_{lin3} = 2.792s
Q5. Cubic Trajectory Analysis
Given the cubic trajectory: \theta(t) = 10 + 90t^2 - 60t^3 for t \in [0, 1].
We need to find the starting (t=0) and final (t=1) positions, velocities, and accelerations.
1.​ Position: \theta(t) = 10 + 90t^2 - 60t^3
○​ Starting Position (t=0): \theta(0) = 10 + 90(0)^2 - 60(0)^3 = 10.
○​ Final Position (t=1): \theta(1) = 10 + 90(1)^2 - 60(1)^3 = 10 + 90 - 60 = 40.
2.​ Velocity: \dot{\theta}(t) = \frac{d\theta}{dt} = 0 + 180t - 180t^2
 ○​ Starting Velocity (t=0): \dot{\theta}(0) = 180(0) - 180(0)^2 = 0.
○​ Final Velocity (t=1): \dot{\theta}(1) = 180(1) - 180(1)^2 = 180 - 180 = 0.
3.​ Acceleration: \ddot{\theta}(t) = \frac{d\dot{\theta}}{dt} = 180 - 360t
○​ Starting Acceleration (t=0): \ddot{\theta}(0) = 180 - 360(0) = 180.
○​ Final Acceleration (t=1): \ddot{\theta}(1) = 180 - 360(1) = -180.
Summary:
●​ Starting (t=0): Position \theta(0) = 10, Velocity \dot{\theta}(0) = 0, Acceleration
\ddot{\theta}(0) = 180.
●​ Final (t=1): Position \theta(1) = 40, Velocity \dot{\theta}(1) = 0, Acceleration
\ddot{\theta}(1) = -180.
Q6. Briefly explain different robotic configurations for Material handling, Machine
loading-unloading and welding.
Different robot configurations offer distinct advantages based on their structure, workspace,
degrees of freedom (DOF), payload capacity, speed, and cost. Here's how common
configurations suit specific applications:
1.​ Cartesian Robot (Gantry Robot):
○​ Configuration: Uses three prismatic (linear) joints, axes aligned with Cartesian
coordinates (X, Y, Z).
○​ Characteristics: Rectangular workspace, high rigidity and accuracy, relatively
simple control, often large workspaces possible, can handle heavy payloads.
Typically slower than articulated arms.
○​ Applications:
■​ Material Handling: Excellent for pick-and-place over a large area, palletizing,
stacking (e.g., warehouse logistics).
■​ Machine Loading/Unloading: Suitable for loading/unloading CNC
machines, presses, or injection molding machines, especially if parts need
linear insertion or placement over a grid.
■​ Welding: Less common for complex welds, but can be used for simple linear
or grid-based welding/sealing applications.
2.​ Cylindrical Robot:
○​ Configuration: One revolute (rotational) joint at the base, followed by two prismatic
joints (vertical and radial).
○​ Characteristics: Cylindrical workspace, good reach in the radial direction, relatively
simple structure.
○​ Applications:
■​ Material Handling: Assembly tasks, pick-and-place within its cylindrical
workspace.
■​ Machine Loading/Unloading: Good for serving machines arranged radially
around the robot.
3.​ Spherical Robot (Polar Robot):
○​ Configuration: Two revolute joints (base rotation, elevation) and one prismatic joint
(radial extension).
○​ Characteristics: Spherical workspace section, long reach capability. Less common
now.
○​ Applications: Historically used in spot welding, machine loading, and material
handling before articulated arms became dominant.
4.​ SCARA Robot (Selective Compliance Assembly Robot Arm):
○​ Configuration: Two parallel revolute joints (horizontal motion) and one prismatic
 joint (vertical motion). Sometimes a 4th rotational joint at the wrist.
○​ Characteristics: High speed and precision in the horizontal plane, rigid in the
vertical direction (compliance horizontally), relatively small circular/kidney-shaped
workspace.
○​ Applications:
■​ Material Handling: Ideal for high-speed pick-and-place, assembly (especially
inserting components vertically), packaging.
■​ Machine Loading/Unloading: Suitable for small parts into machines
requiring primarily horizontal movement with a final vertical insertion.
■​ Welding: Not typically used for welding.
5.​ Articulated Robot (Revolute/Jointed-Arm Robot):
○​ Configuration: Typically 5 or 6 (or more) revolute joints, resembling a human arm.
○​ Characteristics: Large, complex workspace (roughly spherical), high dexterity and
flexibility to reach points from various orientations, can avoid obstacles. Control is
more complex. Wide range of sizes and payload capacities.
○​ Applications:
■​ Material Handling: Very versatile for complex pick-and-place, palletizing,
logistics.
■​ Machine Loading/Unloading: Widely used due to flexibility in accessing
machines from different angles.
■​ Welding: Dominant configuration for arc welding and spot welding due to the
ability to precisely orient the welding tool along complex paths and around
obstacles. Also used for painting, sealing, deburring.
Summary for Applications:
●​ Material Handling: Cartesian (large areas, heavy loads), SCARA (high speed,
assembly), Articulated (versatility, complex paths).
●​ Machine Loading/Unloading: Cartesian (linear access), Cylindrical (radial access),
Articulated (most flexible access), SCARA (small parts, specific layouts).
●​ Welding: Articulated (dominant for flexibility and orientation control, both arc and spot),
Cartesian (simple linear welds).
Q7. What are Micro/Nanorobotics system? Discuss with an example.
Micro/Nanorobotics: Micro/Nanorobotics refers to the field of designing, manufacturing, and
operating robots whose characteristic dimensions or manipulated objects range from
micrometers (1 \mu m = 10^{-6} m) down to nanometers (1 nm = 10^{-9} m). These systems
bridge the gap between macroscopic machines and the molecular world.
●​ Microrobotics: Deals with devices typically ranging from 1 \mu m to 1 mm. These can
often be miniaturized versions of conventional robots or utilize principles like MEMS
(Micro-Electro-Mechanical Systems) technology. They might involve micro-manipulators,
micro-grippers, and micro-actuators.
●​ Nanorobotics: Deals with devices at the nanometer scale. Building functional robots at
this scale is extremely challenging and often involves molecular machinery, DNA origami,
or manipulating atoms/molecules. Many current "nanorobots" are actually microscale
devices designed for nanoscale tasks or biologically inspired nanoscale machines.
Discussion: Micro/Nanorobotic systems face unique challenges compared to macroscopic
robots:
1.​ Scaling Laws: Forces like surface tension, viscosity, and Van der Waals forces become
dominant over gravity and inertia at small scales, significantly impacting actuation,
manipulation, and locomotion.
 2.​ Actuation: Providing power and generating motion at these scales is difficult. Methods
include piezoelectric materials, thermal expansion, magnetic fields, chemical reactions,
bacterial flagella, optical tweezers.
3.​ Sensing and Control: Observing and controlling these tiny devices is challenging.
Techniques often involve electron microscopy, atomic force microscopy, or external fields
(magnetic, acoustic). Feedback control is complex.
4.​ Fabrication: Manufacturing devices with micro/nanometer precision requires advanced
techniques like photolithography, electron beam lithography, self-assembly processes.
5.​ Environment: Often operate in fluidic environments (like inside the body) where
Brownian motion (random movement due to molecular collisions) can be significant.
Example: Magnetically Guided Nanobots for Drug Delivery
●​ Concept: Tiny (often microscale, but operating at a nano-level function) biocompatible
carriers loaded with a therapeutic agent (e.g., chemotherapy drugs).
●​ Structure: Could be magnetic nanoparticles embedded in a polymer matrix, helical
micro-swimmers coated with magnetic material, or other structures. Size typically ranges
from tens of nanometers to a few micrometers.
●​ Actuation/Guidance: An external magnetic field generator creates controlled magnetic
gradients. These fields exert forces and torques on the magnetic components of the
micro/nanobots. By precisely controlling the external magnetic field, the bots can be
steered through the bloodstream or tissues.
●​ Function: The bots are injected into the body (e.g., bloodstream). External magnetic
fields guide them non-invasively to a specific target site (e.g., a tumor). Once at the target,
a trigger (e.g., change in pH, temperature, or another external signal like ultrasound)
causes the bot to release its drug payload directly at the diseased site.
●​ Advantages: This targeted delivery aims to increase the concentration of the drug at the
target while minimizing exposure and side effects to healthy tissues, potentially improving
treatment efficacy and reducing toxicity.
●​ Challenges: Efficiently navigating complex biological environments (like tortuous blood
vessels), ensuring biocompatibility and avoiding immune response, achieving precise
targeting and controlled drug release, and tracking the bots in real-time remain active
areas of research.