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M A C H I A V E L L I’ S PR INCE
Machiavelli’s Prince
A New Reading

E R I C A BE N N E R

1
 3
Great Clarendon Street, Oxford, OX2 6DP,
United Kingdom
Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford.
It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship,
and education by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered trade mark of
Oxford University Press in the UK and in certain other countries
# Erica Benner 2013
The moral rights of the author have been asserted
First Edition published in 2013
Impression: 1
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in
a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the
prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted
by law, by licence or under terms agreed with the appropriate reprographics
rights organization. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the
above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the
address above
You must not circulate this work in any other form
and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer
Published in the United States of America by Oxford University Press
198 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016, United States of America
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
Data available
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
Data available
ISBN 978–0–19–965363–8
Printed in Great Britain by
CPI Group (UK) Ltd, Croydon, CR0 4YY
Quanto piú mi è cresciuto la speranza, tanto mi è cresciuto el timore . . . Oimé,
che io non truovo requie in alcuno loco! Talvolta io cerco di vincere me stesso,
riprendomi di questo mio furore, e dico meco: Che fai tu? Se’ tu impazzato?
Quando tu l’ottenga, che fia? . . . Non sai tu quanto poco bene si truova nella
cose che l’uomo desidera, rispetto a quello che l’uomo ha presupposto trovarvi?

The more my hope has grown, the more my fear has grown . . . Woe is me!
I can’t find rest anywhere! Sometimes I try to conquer myself, reproaching
myself for this fury of mine, and say to myself: What are you doing? Are
you crazy? When you get her, what’ll it amount to? . . . Don’t you know how
little good a man finds in the things he has longed for, compared with what
he expected to find?
(Mandragola, Act IV, scene 1)
 Acknowledgements

I have been inspired and challenged by discussions with other scholars, some
at early stages of writing and others when the manuscript was more or less
complete. I regret that I had too little time and space to address all their
suggestions in the text. Nondimanco, I thank the following for their contribu-
tions to my thinking on the Prince, and hope for future opportunities to
continue our discussions: Adrian Blau, Guillaume Bogiaris, Dirk Brantl, Dallas
Denery, Denis Fachard, Benedetto Fontana, Tankred Freiberger, Rolf Geiger,
Michael Gillespie, Giovanni Giorgini, Anthony Grafton, Ruth Grant, Otfried
Höffe, Andreas Kablitz, George Kateb, Daniel Stein Kokin, Robyn Marasco,
John McCormick, David Miller, Cary Nederman, Luis Javier Orjuela, Gio-
vanni Panno, Zbigniew Pelczynski, Mark Philp, Alessandro Pinzani, Ema-
nuele Cutinelli Rendina, Jorge Andres López Rivera, Rodrigo Romero, Rahul
Sagar, Peter Schröder, Quentin Skinner, Peter Stacey, Vickie Sullivan, Diego
von Vacano, Ever Eduardo Velazco, Armando Villegas, Maurizio Viroli,
Daniel Weinstock, Will Wittels, and Catherine Zuckert. Special thanks are
due to John Najemy for his prudentissimo advice on my original book
proposal.
Some of the ideas in this book were presented at the Groupe de Recherche
Interuniversitaire en Philosophie Politique, Montreal; Philosophisches
Seminar, Tübingen University; Oriel College, Oxford; the Center for Human
Values, Princeton; Duke University; Universidad Javeriana, Cali, Colombia;
and Renaissance Studies Association conferences in Montreal and Washing-
ton, D.C. I thank the organizers for their invitations, and the audiences and
other participants for their comments.
I also thank Andrew Hurrell, Catherine Clarke, and the anonymous readers
for OUP for their valuable suggestions; and Dominic Byatt, Aimee Wright,
Carla Hodge, and Mandi Gomez at OUP for all their editorial support.
I am grateful above all to Patrick and to my mother, to whom I dedicate
this book. Since words cannot express the depth of my gratitude, I shall leave
them out.
 Contents

Detailed contents xi
Abbreviations xvii
Introduction xix
Machiavelli’s ironic techniques xlv
Coded words liii

Dedication: princes and peoples 1

States
1. States and modes 9
2. Maintaining states 23
3. Empire 31
4. Absolute government 53
5. Free cities 61

Modes
6. Virtú 69
7. Fortune 89
8. Crimes 111
9. Fortunate astuteness 123

Foundations
10. Abundance and necessity 139
11. Popes 149
12. Arms and laws 155
13. Arms and virtú 163
14. Knowledge and discipline 169

Virtues and vices

15. Praise and blame 179
16. Giving and spending 185
17. Fear and punishment 197
18. Deception and good faith 213
19. What princes should fear 225
x Contents

Prudence and trust

20. Trusting one’s own subjects 247
21. Gaining trust from allies 255
22. Trustworthy ministers 267
23. Why princes need the truth 273

Redemption
24. Stop blaming others 283
25. How to deal with fortune 291
26. Redeem yourselves 305
Conclusion 313

Bibliography and further reading 329

Index 337
 Detailed contents

Abbreviations xvii
Introduction xix
Machiavelli’s life and times xxii
Machiavelli, the Medici, and the Prince xxvi
A peculiar kind of handbook xxix
Irony and political criticism xxx
Signs of irony in the Prince xxxii
The uses of inconsistency xxxv
Princes of virtú and of fortune xxxvii
Why would Machiavelli dissimulate? xxxix
The Prince as a discourse xlii
Reading the Prince xliii
Machiavelli’s ironic techniques xlv
(1) Paradox and general standards xlv
(2) Ambiguity and normatively ‘coded’ language xlvi
(3) Provocative use of examples xlvii
(4) Ironic contrast xlviii
(a) Contrasting words and deeds xlviii
(b) Contrasting descriptions xlix
(5) Eloquent silences and omissions xlix
(a) Unstated parallels xlix
(b) Misleading omissions l
(6) Ironic transformation l
(7) Hyperbole and exaggeration l
(8) Absurd or outrageous assertions li
Coded words liii

Dedication: princes and peoples 1

Political resources: knowledge and fortune 1
Popular and princely knowledge 3
Machiavelli’s fortune and the fortune of princes 5

States
1. States and modes 9
States and dominions 9
Republics and principalities 11
Silent tyranny 15
The hereditary, the new, and the free 17
Fortune and virtú 18
xii Detailed contents

Disadvantages of relying on fortune 19

What is virtú? 22
2. Maintaining states 23
Absent republics 23
Hereditary princes: ordinary and extraordinary 24
Continuity and innovation 28
3. Empire 31
Why new princes face difficulties 31
Does necessity excuse injuries? 32
Difficulties for new princes in a foreign country 34
Remedies I: when a prince’s old state is in the same province
as a newly added one 36
Remedies II: when newly acquired states are in a
different province 37
Remedies III: international strategies for holding a foreign state 41
Roman foresight: the prince-state’s perspective 42
Roman foresight: the wider perspective 45
Modern errors: the perspective of princes 49
Modern errors: the perspective of subjects 51
4. Absolute government 53
Two modes of princely government: dependent officials
or independent lords 53
Two modes of acquiring and holding empire 55
Which kind of state should a prince prefer to have? 58
5. Free cities 61
How to hold free states 61
Why conquerors of free cities must ruin them 63
The revenge of free peoples 65

Modes
6. Virtú 69
What is virtú? Words and deeds 69
Why it is better to rely on virtú than on fortune 70
Superhuman orders and human virtú 71
Opportunity and fortune 74
The happy results of princely virtú 77
Stand by yourself and use force 79
A lesser example of great virtú: Hiero of Syracuse 84
7. Fortune 89
High-flying princes of fortune 90
Why acquiring by fortune creates future difficulties 91
 Detailed contents xiii

How to hold what you acquire by fortune: switch

to relying on virtú 93
Examples: Francesco Sforza and Cesare Borgia 94
Cesare decides to go it alone 97
Pacifying Romagna: the pieces in the piazza of Remirro de Orco 101
How virtuous were Borgia’s foundations? 104
Whose fault was Borgia’s failure? 107
Why be ironic about Borgia? 110
8. Crimes 111
Do princely crimes ever pay? 111
If crimes sometimes pay, why bother to use virtú? 115
Is cruelty always criminal? 116
How do criminal modes differ from fortune-dependent ones? 117
Does moral virtú matter? 120
9. Fortunate astuteness 123
Civil principality: mixed mode of government or oxymoron? 123
The shadow of the Medici 124
Not fortune or virtú, but a fortunate astuteness 125
Why princes should found themselves on the people 127
Modes of founding on the people 130
The perils of absolute power 132

Foundations
10. Abundance and necessity 139
Have a strong town and avoid popular hatred 139
Why free cities have good defences 140
Fortifications I: military and economic 141
Fortifications II: good orders and justice 143
Making virtú out of necessity 145
How princes and peoples can unite through siege 147
11. Popes 149
Otherworldly states 149
How the Church grew great 150
Can any human prince do without earthly foundations? 151
12. Arms and laws 155
Why good arms need good laws 156
Why mercenaries are useless 157
Good arms and republics 159
Virtú badly used 161
xiv Detailed contents

13. Arms and virtú 163

How using others’ virtuous arms can harm you 163
Four examples 165
14. Knowledge and discipline 169
Military and civil orders 169
The benefits of hunting 170
Complete military virtú 172
Good and less good imitations of great men 173

Virtues and vices

15. Praise and blame 179
Machiavelli’s subversive new teaching 179
Misleading appearances and necessary vices 180
Effectual truths 183
16. Giving and spending 185
The dangers of being held liberal 185
What’s in a name: true and apparent vices 186
Are moral and instrumental virtú different? 190
Caveat I: be liberal to acquire, but not to maintain 190
Caveat II: be liberal with others’ property, but not
with your own 192
Liberality and corruption 193
17. Fear and punishment 197
Too much mercy can be cruel 197
Severity and mildness 199
Caveat I: proceed in a temperate mode with prudence
and humanity 202
The badness of human nature 206
Caveat II: how to be feared without being hated 208
Cruelty well used 209
18. Deception and good faith 213
Why break faith? 213
Laws and force, beasts and men 214
Foxes and lions 216
When faith may be broken 218
Dissimulating about deception 220
Appear more virtuous than you are, and vary with fortune 221
Judging by results 223
 Detailed contents xv

19. What princes should fear 225

Getting away with infamies 226
How to avoid conspiracies 227
How to satisfy the people 230
Who to satisfy: the people or the soldiers 233
Pathology of tyranny: the Roman emperors 237
Happy ends 242

Prudence and trust

20. Trusting one’s own subjects 247
Disarming subjects 247
Keep subject towns divided 249
Nourish enmities against yourself 250
Gain to yourself those who were suspect at the beginning 251
Build fortresses 252
21. Gaining trust from allies 255
Great and rare enterprises 255
The perils of neutrality 258
Neutrality and justice 260
Inescapable inconveniences 261
How princes can inspire their citizens and gain esteem 263
22. Trustworthy ministers 267
How to judge a prince’s brain 267
How to test ministers 269
23. Why princes need the truth 273
How to seek the truth without becoming contemptible 273
The trouble with third modes 275
The prudence of the prince alone 277
Truth before reverence: the first mode revisited 279

Redemption
24. Stop blaming others 283
The virtú of new princes 283
Macedonians, Greeks, and Italians 285
Pick yourself up 288
25. How to deal with fortune 291
Is one’s fortune ever deserved? 292
Fortune, God, and our own responsibility 292
Building/Caution Mode I: free will 294
Variation/Impetuosity Mode II: vary one’s modes
with the times 296
xvi Detailed contents

Can it be virtuous to change with fortune? 298

Can one vary one’s modes or nature? 299
From variation and impetuosity to violence 301
26. Redeem yourselves 305
Who can save Italy? 305
Can God help? 307
Good human orders 310
The barbarians and us 311
Conclusion 313
The ‘book of republicans’ 313
How to reform a corrupt state 315
Self-eliminating princes 317
Are princes ever necessary? The ancient topos of
one-man orderers 318
Machiavellian dissimulation 325

Bibliography and further reading 329

Index 337
 Abbreviations

Machiavelli’s works

Ai Palleschi Original in Opere vol. 1.

AW Art of War [Dell’ arte della guerra]. Original in Opere vol. 1.
Cagione Cagione della Ordinanza. Original in Opere vol. 1.
CC The Life of Castruccio Castracani of Lucca [La vita di Castruccio
Castracani da Lucca]. Original in Opere vol. 3.
D Discourses on Livy [Discorsi sopra la prima deca di Tito Livio].
Original in Opere vol. 1.
Decennale Original in Opere vol. 1.
Dell’ Ambizione Tercets on Ambition. Original in Opere vol. 3.
Di Fortuna Tercets on Fortune. Original in Opere vol. 3.
Discursus Discourse on Remodelling the Government of Florence [Discursus
florentinarum rerum]. Original in Opere vol. 1.
FH Florentine Histories [Istorie fiorentine]. Original in Opere vol. 3.
GA ‘A Portrait of German Affairs’ [Ritracto delle cose della Magna].
Original in Opere vol. 1.
Legations Legazioni e Commissarie. Original in Opere vol. 2.
MF Machiavelli and his Friends: Their Personal Correspondence. Trans.
and ed. James B. Atkinson and David Sices. Original in Opere vol. 2.
Provisione Provisione della Ordinanza. Original in Opere vol. 1.3.

Other works

AP Aristotle, Politics
AR Aristotle, Rhetoric
ANE Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics
GD Guicciardini, Dialogues
LH Livy, Histories [Ab urbe condita]
ME Benner, Machiavelli’s Ethics
PolH Polybius, Histories
PL Plutarch, Parallel Lives of Greeks and Romans
PM Plutarch, Moralia
SJW Sallust, Jugurthine War
xviii Abbreviations
SWC Sallust, War with Catiline
TA Tacitus, Agricola
TH Tacitus, Histories
TPW Thucydides, Peloponnesian War
VA Virgil, Aeneid
XC Xenophon, Cyropaedia
XH Xenophon, Hiero
 Introduction

De’ principi si parla sempre con mille paure e mille rispetti.

Princes are always spoken of with a thousand fears and a thousand
hesitations.
(Discourses, I.58)
Niccolò Machiavelli’s Prince is one of the most famous books in the world—
and perhaps the least understood. Its author announced the existence of a first
draft 500 years ago, in a December 1513 letter to his friend Francesco Vettori.
The letter begins with a vivid description of how Machiavelli spent his days at
his small family estate outside Florence, where he had gone in March after
suffering a series of political and personal disasters. The Florentine republic he
had served for 14 years had been overthrown in September of the previous
year. In the ensuing months Machiavelli was dismissed from his political
posts, accused of taking part in a conspiracy against the new rulers, im-
prisoned, and tortured. Recovering his spirits post res perditas, ‘after these
wretched affairs’,1 he tells Vettori that his greatest solace comes in the evenings
when, retreating to his study:
I step inside the antique courts of the ancients where, lovingly received by
them . . . I nourish myself on that food that alone is mine and for which I was
born. . . . And because Dante says that no one makes knowledge [fa scienza]
without retaining what he has understood, I have jotted down what capital I
have made from their conversation and composed a little work [opusculo], De
principatibus (‘Of principalities’), in which I delve as deeply as I can into the
cogitations concerning this topic, disputing the definition of a principality, the
categories of principalities, how they are acquired, how they are maintained, and
why they are lost. And if ever any whimsy [ghiribizo] of mine has given you
pleasure, this one should not displease you. It ought to be welcomed by a prince,
and especially by a new prince; therefore I am dedicating it to His Magnificence
Giuliano.2
In September 1512 the 33-year-old Giuliano de’ Medici had led troops against
Florence, backed by Pope Julius II and Spanish forces, and deposed the
republican government that had employed Machiavelli. By late 1513 rumour
had it that Giuliano’s brother Giovanni, now Pope Leo X, might employ him

1
As he inscribed on a copy of his ‘Discourse on the reorganization of the Florentine state for
arms’.
2
Machiavelli to Vettori, 10 December 1513, MF 263–5.
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