BIT SINDRI, Dhanbad

Advances In Steel-Making
ASSIGNMENT

Decarburization Techniques in Steel-Making

&
Oxygen Transport Mechanism in Steel-Making Furnaces

Name: Subhodeep Sadhu

Roll No: 2003055
Reg. No: 20030500056
Batch: 2020-24, 7th Semester
Branch: Metallurgical Engineering
Assigned By: Dr. A.K. Rajak
Q. What is Decarburization in Steel Making? Why is it necessary?
Ans: Decarburization is a process that reduces the amount of carbon constituents in steels.
Steels are generally classified as low-carbon, medium-carbon, and high-carbon steels. A
general rule is that as the amount of carbon content decreases, the strength and the hardness of
the steel decreases.
Decarburization occurs when the metal is heated to temperatures of 700 °C or above when
carbon in the metal reacts with gases containing oxygen or hydrogen. The removal of carbon
removes hard carbide phases resulting in a softening of the metal, primarily at the surfaces that
are in contact with the decarburizing gas.
Decarburization may have desirable or adverse effects. Some of the effects include reduced
ductility, reduced strength, and increased susceptibility to crack initiation. These effects are
concentrated at the surface of the metal. It’s worth noting that equipment failure is rarely a
direct result of decarburization.

Q. What do you mean by the AOD process? Explain.

Ans: Argon oxygen decarburization (AOD) is a process mainly used in the production of
stainless steel and other high-grade alloys such as silicon (Si) steels, tool steels, nickel (Ni)
base alloys, and cobalt (Co) base alloys with oxidizable elements such as chromium (Cr) and
aluminum (Al).

The AOD converter consists of side-wall tuyeres and a top-blowing lance. A mixture of argon-
oxygen is injected in to steel through several side-wall tuyeres located near the bottom of the
converter. The tuyeres are few depending upon the capacity. The vessel is lined with basic
magnesite refractory.

Molten charge from the arc furnace is transferred to this vessel and blown, with an argon-
oxygen mixture, the proportion of which varies from 1: 3 in the beginning through one or two
discrete stages to 3: 1 for the final part of the blow. The temperature of the bath rises at the end
of the first stage to nearly 1710°C and coolants like nickel, stainless scrap, other additions, HC
Fe-Cr, etc. are added in predetermined proportion to finally arrive at the correct turn-down
temperature. The heat is finished by deoxidation by Fe-Si addition. It also reduces back
whatever chromium is in the slag at the end. The chromium recovery is, therefore, plus 97%.

The total duration of an AOD heat is around 2 hours and the lining life is around 80 heats. It is
also effective in obtaining good sulfur removal by using argon stirring at the end. The molten
metal is decarburized and refined in the AOD converter to less than 0.05 % carbon.
 Fig: AOD Converter

Q. Explain the major steps in the Argon oxygen decarburization process.

Ans: After the initial melting metal is transferred to an AOD converter, there are three steps of
refining:
i. Decarburization: The decarburization step is controlled by ratios of oxygen to argon
or nitrogen to remove the carbon from the metal bath. The gases are usually blown
through a top lance (oxygen only) and tuyeres in the sides/bottom (oxygen with an inert
gas shroud).
In the stages of blowing carbon is removed by the combination of oxygen and carbon forming
CO gas.

4 𝐶𝑟( ) + 3 𝑂 → 2 𝐶𝑟 𝑂 ( )

𝐶𝑟 𝑂 ( ) + 3 𝐶( ) → 3 𝐶𝑂( ) + 2 𝐶𝑟( )

Lowering partial pressure of CO with argon or nitrogen increases bath temperature, resulting
in CO formation, retaining 97% of Cr in steel.
ii. Reduction: After a desired carbon and temperature level have been reached the process
moves to reduction. Reduction recovers the oxidized elements such as chromium from
the slag.
To achieve this, alloy additions are made with elements that have a higher affinity for oxygen
than chromium, using either a silicon alloy or aluminum. The reduction mix also includes lime
(CaO) and fluorspar (CaF2).
The addition of lime and fluorspar helps with driving the reduction of Cr₂O₃ and managing the
slag, keeping the slag fluid and volume small.

iii. Desulphurization: Desulphurization is achieved by having a high lime concentration

in the slag and a low oxygen activity in the metal.
𝑆( ) + 𝐶𝑎𝑂( ) → 𝐶𝑎𝑆( ) + 𝑂( )

So, additions of lime is added to dilute sulfur in the metal bath. Also, aluminum or silicon
may be added to remove oxygen.

Q. Describe the mechanism and chemical reactions by which carbon is removed from the
molten metal during the AOD process.
Ans: Argon Oxygen Decarburization (AOD) removes carbon from molten metal through
oxidation reactions, forming gaseous CO2 and releasing it from the melt.
1. Oxidation of Carbon: The AOD converter introduces oxygen gas into a molten metal
bath, reacting with carbon to form carbon monoxide (CO) through a lance or tuyeres.
C + O2 → CO2
2. Carbon Monoxide Formation: The carbon monoxide formed in the initial reaction
further reacts with additional oxygen to form carbon dioxide:
2CO + O2 → 2CO2
3. Evaporation and Removal of CO2: Carbon dioxide, a byproduct of decarburization
reactions, is released from molten metal and absorbed by the atmosphere above the
AOD converter, effectively reducing the carbon content of the molten metal.

Q. What are the advantages and limitations of the AOD process?

Ans: Some of the key advantages and limitations of Argon oxygen decarburization are as
follows:
Advantages of AOD:
i. Flexible Alloying
ii. Low Gas Pickup
iii. Reduced Energy Consumption
iv. Minimal Environmental Impact
v. Versatility and Adaptability
Limitations of the AOD Process:
i. Longer Processing Time
 ii. Complexity and Equipment Costs
iii. Alloy Yield Loss
iv. Risk of Slag Carryover
v. Limited Capacity for Carbon Reduction

Q. What do you understand by the VOD process? Give its advantages.

Ans: VOD stands for Vaccum Oxygen Decarburization which is generally used to achieve
extensive decarburization of steel. The VOD system consists of a vacuum tank, ladle furnace,
oxygen landing lid, and a one-meter-long freeboard, with charge gradients similar to AOD
procedures. Melting the charge in a furnace yields molten metal that contains 0.7% to 0.8%
carbon, which is then fed into the VOD system. The process involves creating a vacuum,
blowing out oxygen, and possibly argon bubbles, and stirring with argon to prevent
decarburization from slowing down.
The carbon can be lowered to around 0.02% at around 15 to 18% chromium by this technique
at a temperature level of around 1600°C. The total VOD cycle lasts for about 2 hr to 2 hr 30
min.
Upon completion of refining, the vacuum is released and the bath is deoxidized using Fe-Si
and Al. To desulfurize, add synthetic slag to the metal charge at a weight percentage of 2–3%.
Then, purge the argon gas to remove 80% of the sulfur, leaving 0.01% of sulfur in the final
product. Plus 97% is the chromium recovery.

Fig: Schematic of VOD process

Advantages of VOD:
i. Extensive decarburization with low chromium losses.
 ii. Hydrogen Removal (Degassing).
iii. Chemical heating of liquid steel.
iv. Improved conditions for desulfurization by proper additions.
v. Improved conditions for Inclusion flotation.

Q. Why is vacuum used in the VOD process, and how does it contribute to the
decarburization of the molten metal?
Ans: Vacuum is crucial in the Vacuum Oxygen Decarburization (VOD) process for its
significant contribution to the decarburization of molten metal.
Removal of Dissolved Gases: The vacuum in the VOD process is used to remove dissolved
gases from molten metal, such as hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen, which can affect the final
product's properties. This vacuum environment drives these gases out, resulting in cleaner and
more refined steel.
Prevention of Reoxidation: Vacuum prevents reoxidation of molten metal during refining, as
oxygen introduced during decarburization can lead to reoxidation of alloying elements like
chromium, manganese, and silicon, causing undesirable oxide formation and affecting the final
steel product's properties. Operating under vacuum conditions minimizes oxygen.
Enhanced Decarburization Efficiency: Vacuum enhances decarburization efficiency in the
VOD process by allowing oxygen to react more readily with carbon and impurities, resulting
in faster and more thorough decarburization. This leads to the production of low-carbon or
ultra-low-carbon stainless steel with superior quality and properties.
Reduced Gas Pickup: Vacuum technology minimizes gas pickup during the VOD process,
preventing molten metal from absorbing atmospheric gases like nitrogen and hydrogen, which
can negatively impact the final product's quality. This process ensures cleaner and purer steel
production.

Q. What are the critical parameters that need to be controlled during the VOD process
to ensure effective decarburization and alloying?
Ans: For efficient decarburization and alloying during the VOD process in the steel industry,
several crucial parameters must be maintained and those parameters are:
Oxygen Control Rate: The optimal decarburization of molten metal baths requires precise
control of the oxygen flow rate to prevent excessive oxidation and incomplete decarburization.
Vacuum Level: Maintaining an appropriate vacuum level in the VOD vessel is crucial for
efficient gas removal and preventing molten metal reoxidation, ensuring the removal of
dissolved gases and impurities.
Temperature: The temperature of the molten metal bath significantly impacts decarburization
and alloying reactions, necessitating optimal conditions for efficient carbon removal and proper
alloy dissolution and distribution.
Alloying Element Addition: The addition of alloying elements like chromium, nickel,
manganese, and molybdenum requires precise control and timing to achieve the desired
composition and properties in the final steel product.
Slag Composition: The composition of the slag layer on molten metal surfaces significantly
influences decarburization and alloying processes, necessitating optimization for efficient
carbon removal, reoxidation prevention, and element transfer.

Q. In which sectors is VOD-derived stainless steel commonly used?

Ans: Vacuum Oxygen Decarburization (VOD)-derived stainless steel is widely used in various
sectors due to its unique properties high strength, corrosion resistance, biocompatibility,
aesthetic appeal, etc. Some of the major sectors are:
Automotive Industry: Components like exhaust systems, mufflers, catalytic converters, and
decorative trim.
Aerospace and Aviation: VOD steels are employed in aircraft structures, engine components,
fasteners, and landing gear assemblies.
Chemical and Petrochemical Industries: VOD-derived stainless steel is used for storage tanks,
pipelines, reactors, heat exchangers, and other equipment.
Construction and Architecture: It is used for building facades, roofing, cladding, handrails,
structural components, and decorative elements.
Energy and Power Generation: It is used in nuclear power plants, thermal power plants,
renewable energy systems, and offshore oil and gas platforms.
Medical and Healthcare: Surgical instruments, medical devices, implants, hospital equipment,
and laboratory tools.

Q. Explain the CLU technique for decarburization of steel.

Ans: CLU stands for Creusot-Loire Uddeholm process which is named after the scientists
Creusot-Loire of France and Uddeholm of Sweden who developed this method.
CLU, a process similar to AOD for stainless steel, uses liquid steel from EAF and superheated
steam as diluting gas instead of argon gas. A mixture of oxygen, steam, argon, nitrogen, and air
is blown from the bottom. The compositions of the mixture are preset for the entire blow
depending upon the chemistry of the bath. The presence of steam controls the temperature
around 1650-1680°C. Whatever chromium is oxidized earlier is reduced back by the addition
of Fe-Si and Cr-Si as in the usual practice. Carbon contents of around 0-015% have been
achieved.
𝑘𝐽 1
𝐻 𝑂( ) + 241.9 = 𝐻 ( ) + 𝑂 ( )
𝑚𝑜𝑙 2
The steam dissociates in the steel, and the hydrogen (H2) acts as a flushing gas in the same
way as Ar in the AOD process, and the 02 acts as a refining medium.
The process of the steel bath. This helps in controlling the temperature of the steel bath. of
dissociation of steam is endothermic and takes heat from the steel bath. This helps in controlling
the temperature of the steel bath.
Advantages of CLU:
i. The possibility of controlling the temperature during the
ii. The cost of dilution gas is low.
iii. The process uses low-priced ferrochromium (Fe-Cr) with high Si and C contents.
iv. The low operating temperature.

Q. What is the role of oxygen in steel-making furnaces?

Ans: In steelmaking furnaces, oxygen is essential for decarburization, alloying, heat
production, gas stirring, and slag formation. By interacting with carbon to generate carbon
monoxide and carbon dioxide gases, it aids in the removal of carbon from molten metal. By
lowering the carbon content, this technique makes steel appropriate for a range of uses. To give
steel particular qualities, alloying elements including chromium, nickel, manganese, and
molybdenum are additionally introduced using oxygen. Injecting oxygen also aids in keeping
the molten metal at the proper temperature for processing and refinement. The quality and
homogeneity of the finished steel product are increased by gas stirring, which encourages the
uniform distribution of alloying components and accelerates chemical processes.

Q. What do you mean by Oxygen transport mechanism?

Ans: Oxygen transport mechanisms are crucial in steelmaking furnaces, particularly in
processes like the Basic Oxygen Furnace (BOF) and the Oxygen Steelmaking Process (OSP).
These mechanisms involve the introduction, distribution, and utilization of oxygen to facilitate
chemical reactions essential for refining molten metal into steel. Oxygen is introduced into the
molten metal bath through lances or tuyeres, water-cooled nozzles, which deliver oxygen in
the form of a supersonic jet or stream.
Gas injection systems, such as those used in BOF and OSP, inject oxygen into the furnace
vessel, creating bubbles or jets that promote mixing and reaction with the metal. The size,
distribution, and stability of these bubbles influence the effectiveness of oxygen transport and
the kinetics of chemical reactions. Slag-Liquid Metal Interaction, where a layer of slag covers
the surface of the molten metal bath, facilitates interactions between oxygen-containing gas
jets or bubbles and the slag layer, transferring oxygen from the gas phase to the liquid metal
phase through physical and chemical processes.

Q. What is soft bowing of oxygen in a Basic Oxygen Furnace?

Ans: Soft blowing is a controlled injection of oxygen or gases into a molten metal bath during
the refining process to maintain a stable reaction. It gradually raises the metal's temperature,
initiating decarburization without excessive agitation or splashing. This blow favors
dephosphorization and maintains a higher lance height to promote slag formation and avoid
small particle ejection.
This mode of blowing helps to minimize splashing and agitation in the molten metal bath,
which can reduce the risk of reoxidation and maintain a stable refining environment. Soft
blowing is also used when refining low-carbon or low-alloy steels, where a slower
decarburization rate is desired to prevent excessive carbon loss.

Q. What do you understand by hard blowing in BOF? Explain.

Ans: Hard blowing refers to a more vigorous or intense injection of oxygen or other gases into
the molten metal bath. This mode of blowing is used when rapid decarburization or heating of
the metal is required. During the hard blowing process, the lance is kept deeper and down in
the BOF converter and the volume of oxygen is also high.
Hard blowing can create a more turbulent reaction, promoting faster mixing of the gases with
the molten metal and accelerating the decarburization process. Hard blowing can also help to
increase the temperature of the molten metal quickly, which is beneficial for achieving the
desired steel chemistry and properties within a shorter processing time.

Q. What do you understand by JFN number?

Ans: JFN stands for jet flow number which is a dimensionless parameter used to characterize
the flow behavior of a gas jet or stream. In the context of steelmaking, the depth of penetration
of a jet in a bath can be assessed in terms of the jet force number.
∗
Jet Flow Number =

The jet flow number provides information about the interaction between the gas jet and the
surrounding fluid. A higher jet flow number indicates a more energetic jet with greater
momentum, which can result in better mixing and penetration into the molten metal bath.
For greater values of JFN, the decarburization is faster and dephosphorization is faster for
reverse conditions. In steelmaking, optimizing the jet flow number can help improve the
efficiency and effectiveness of the refining process, leading to better control over the final steel
composition and properties.

Q. What are single-nozzle and multi-nozzle lance systems in steelmaking?

Ans: Single nozzle and multi-nozzle lances are devices used to inject gases, such as oxygen or
inert gases, into a molten metal bath in steelmaking processes.
Single Nozzle Lance:
A single nozzle lance consists of a single nozzle or opening through which gas is injected into
the molten metal bath. Single nozzle lances are often used in smaller-scale steelmaking
operations or in processes where precise control over gas injection is required.
These lances are relatively simple in design and are suitable for applications where a single gas
injection point is sufficient.
Multi-Nozzle Lance:
A multi-nozzle lance features multiple nozzles or openings arranged along the length of the
lance. Multi-nozzle lances are used in larger-scale steelmaking processes or in applications
where greater gas flow rates or more uniform gas distribution are required.
These lances allow for the injection of gas from multiple points, promoting better mixing and
penetration of the gas into the molten metal bath. The number, size, and arrangement of nozzles
can be tailored to specific process requirements, providing flexibility and control over the gas
injection process.

Fig: Comparison of performance of Single Nozzle

vs Multi Nozzle Lances.
Q. What are the advantages of a multi-nozzle lance over a single-nozzle lance?
Ans: A multi-nozzle lance helps in increasing the total throughput oxygen without any adverse
effect at the same pressure. It also improves the jet speed in the metal bath which leads to the
following benefits:
i. Less slopping and spitting and thus less mechanical losses, in turn, better yield.
ii. Improved mixing of slag and metal and thereby better mass transport and hence better
rate of refining.
iii. Less danger of burning the vessel bottom despite the increased oxygen blowing rate.
iv. Better gas recovery and improved lining life.
v. Better thermal balance and hence more coolant scrap or ore is required.
vi. Improved slag basicity from around 3 to 3-5.
vii. Much improved turndown %P, from 0-034% to 0-017%.

Q. Describe the role of slag in oxygen transport and reaction kinetics in steelmaking
furnaces.
Ans: In steelmaking furnaces, the slag layer plays a crucial role in oxygen transport and
reaction kinetics by influencing the distribution and utilization of oxygen in the molten metal
bath. Slag acts as a barrier between oxygen-containing gas and molten metal, controlling
oxygen transfer and ensuring efficient decarburization. It also distributes oxygen evenly,
promoting uniform decarburization and alloying in the metal bath.
The slag layer's composition and properties impact decarburization and refining reactions. It
acts as a catalyst, removing impurities and promoting desired alloy compositions. The slag-
metal interface provides a reactive surface for oxygen-carbon reactions, forming oxides either
absorbed or released as gas.
The slag layer distributes oxygen evenly in the metal bath, ensuring all regions are exposed to
refining action, ensuring consistent steel composition and properties. It also traps and removes
impurities, enhancing refining efficiency.

Q. How do bubble formation and dispersion influence oxygen transport efficiency in LD

furnace?
Ans: Bubble formation and dispersion are key factors in enhancing oxygen transport efficiency
in steelmaking furnaces. They increase the surface area of contact between oxygen and the
metal, enhancing the rate of oxygen transfer, leading to faster decarburization and alloying
processes. Bubbles also improve mixing, promoting better oxygen distribution throughout the
bath, resulting in more uniform steel composition and properties.
The presence of bubbles also enhances reaction kinetics, leading to faster decarburization rates
and precise control over the refining process. Bubbles act as a barrier between the oxygen-
containing gas and the metal surface, reducing reoxidation risk and maintaining a clean metal
bath.
Bubbles can generate heat through exothermic reactions, ensuring precise temperature control.
They can penetrate deeper into the molten metal bath, ensuring even oxygen distribution,
enhancing refining efficiency. Overall, bubble formation and dispersion optimize the refining
process and improve the quality of the final steel product.

Q. Discuss some of the potential innovations and advancements in oxygen transport

technology for steelmaking furnaces.
Ans: Advancements in oxygen transport technology for steelmaking furnaces have the
potential to revolutionize the efficiency, productivity, and environmental impact of steel
production. Some potential innovations and advancements in this field are as follows:
i. Improved Oxygen Lance Design to enhance oxygen distribution and penetration into
the molten metal bath.
ii. Enhanced Gas Injection Systems such as supersonic injectors or multi-stage injectors
that can increase the momentum and velocity of oxygen jets, leading to better mixing
and reaction kinetics.
iii. Development of novel slag management techniques, such as dynamic slag control
systems or self-regenerating slag systems, can improve the effectiveness of slag in
oxygen transport and reaction kinetics.
iv. Utilization of AI and ML algorithms to analyze process data and optimize oxygen
injection strategies in real time.
v. Use of advanced modeling and simulation like computational fluid dynamics (CFD)
and other modeling techniques.
vi. Integration of carbon capture technologies into steelmaking processes can reduce
carbon emissions while providing additional sources of energy or raw materials for
other industries.
vii. Development of Sustainable Oxygen Production Methods such as electrolysis powered
by renewable energy sources, can reduce the environmental impact of steelmaking.