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Economics As Social Science Economics Imperialism And
The Challenge Of Interdisciplinarity 1st Edition Edition
Roberto Marchionatti Digital Instant Download
Author(s): Roberto Marchionatti, Mario Cedrini
ISBN(s): 9781317438342, 1317438337
Edition: 1st Edition
File Details: PDF, 1.34 MB
Year: 2017
Language: english
Economics as Social Science

There is a growing consensus in social sciences that there is a need for

­interdisciplinary research on the complexity of human behaviour. At an age of
crisis for both the economy and economic theory, economics is called upon to
fruitfully cooperate with contiguous social disciplines. The term ‘economics
imperialism’ refers to the expansion of economics to territories that lie outside
the traditional domain of the discipline. Its critics argue that in starting with the
assumption of maximizing behaviour, economics excludes the nuances of rival
disciplines and has problems in interpreting real-world phenomena.
This book focuses on a territory that persists to be largely intractable using
the postulates of economics: that of primitive societies. In retracing the origins
of economics imperialism back to the birth of the discipline, this volume argues
that it offers a reductionist interpretation that is poor in interpretative power.
By engaging with the neglected traditions of sociological and anthropologi-
cal studies, the analysis offers suggestions for a more democratic cooperation
between the social sciences.
Economics as Social Science is of great interest to those who study the history
of economic thought, political economy and the history of economic anthropol-
ogy, as well as the history of social sciences and economic methodology.

Roberto Marchionatti is Professor of Economics at the University of Turin,

Italy, where he teaches economics, history of economic theory and economic
anthropology.

Mario Cedrini is Assistant Professor of Economics at the University of Turin,

Italy, where he teaches macroeconomics, international economics, history of
­economic thought and economic anthropology.
Routledge Advances in Social Economics
Edited by John B. Davis, Marquette University

This series presents new advances and developments in social economics thinking
on a variety of subjects that concern the link between social values and econom-
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21 The Economics of Values-Based Organizations

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22 The Economics of Resource-Allocation in Healthcare

Cost-Utility, Social Value and Fairness
Andrea Klonschinski

23 Economics as Social Science

Economics imperialism and the challenge of interdisciplinarity
Roberto Marchionatti and Mario Cedrini
Economics as Social Science
Economics imperialism and the
challenge of interdisciplinarity

Roberto Marchionatti and

Mario Cedrini
First published 2017
by Routledge
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© 2017 Roberto Marchionatti and Mario Cedrini
The right of Roberto Marchionatti and Mario Cedrini to be identified as
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A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
Names: Marchionatti, Roberto, 1950- author. | Cedrini, Mario, author.
Title: Economics as social science : economics imperialism and the
challenge of interdisciplinary / Roberto Marchionatti and Mario Cedrini.
Description: Abingdon, Oxon ; New York, NY : Routledge, 2017. | Includes
bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2016023181| ISBN 9781138909298 (hardback) |
ISBN 9781315694047 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Economics. | Interdisciplinary research.
Classification: LCC HB71 .M283 2017 | DDC 330—dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2016023181_

ISBN: 978-1-138-90929-8 (hbk)

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Typeset in Times New Roman

by Swales & Willis Ltd, Exeter, Devon, UK
Contents

Acknowledgements viii

Introduction: origins, evolution and metamorphoses of

economics imperialism, or the need for an interdisciplinary
research programme on human behaviour1

PART I
At the roots of economics imperialism: classical and
neoclassical economics and the issue of primitive societies9

1 The distant origins of economics imperialism:

classical economists and primitive societies11
1.1 Travellers, philosophers and the savages 11
1.2 Adam Smith: a conjectural primitive economy, or
the model of the “early and rude state of society” 28
1.3 In “the realm of necessity”: Karl Marx’s theory of
pre-capitalist societies 36

2 Economics imperialism revealed: neoclassical

economists and primitive man 53
2.1 Occupy anthropology: Lionel Robbins, Raymond
Firth and the formalist school 53
2.2 Beyond the formalist approach: Clifford Geertz’s and
Richard Posner’s informational approach for
peasant and primitive societies 67
2.3 Beyond the formalist approach: Jack Hirshleifer’s
bioeconomics and the human behavioural ecology
of primitive economies 75
vi Contents
3 Primitive societies in the interpretation of classical and
neoclassical economics: a common model 86

PART II
Economics and the challenge of primitive societies:
anthropological non-formalist approaches89

4 The primitive system of gift exchange discovered:

Marcel Mauss’s Essai sur le don91
4.1 Anthropologists and ‘real’ primitive economies 91
4.2 Mauss’s Essai sur le don 93
4.3 Mauss’s critique of the homo oeconomicus 100

5 The substantivist perspective on the role of the

economy in societies: Karl Polanyi’s and
Marshall Sahlins’s contributions 103
5.1 Karl Polanyi’s substantivism 103
5.2 Marshall Sahlins’s neo-substantivism 110
5.3 The debate on Stone Age Economics in the
1980s and 1990s 120

6 The intelligibility of primitive economic organization:

Sahlins, Lévi-Strauss and Clastres on Mauss’s
political philosophy127
6.1 Claude Lévi-Strauss and Marshall Sahlins on the
primitive social contract 127
6.2 Pierre Clastres on the relationship between war and
gift exchange in societies “against the state” 129
6.3 Primitive economic organization in the light of
Mauss’s political philosophy 131

PART III
The problem of the ‘other’: economics and unselfish
behaviour 133

7 Economics on altruism, giving and reciprocity 135

7.1 From philanthropy to altruism 135
7.2 Richard Titmuss’s The Gift Relationship and
economists’ embarrassment 138
 Contents vii
7.3 Mainstream economics and the gift 145
7.4 The economics of reciprocity 152
A note on the origins of human cooperation: Samuel Bowles
and Herbert Gintis on primitive societies 156

8 A unified framework for behavioural sciences?

On Herbert Gintis’s proposal158
8.1 How to remedy the “scandalous” pluralism of
social sciences 158
8.2 The socio(bio)logy of homo socialis 162

PART IV
The theoretical and practical relevance of Mauss’s gift
to the development of a non-imperialist economics 169

9 The gift in social sciences 171

9.1 Jacques Derrida’s philosophy of the impossibility
of the (modern) gift 171
9.2 Alvin Gouldner’s sociology: the norm of reciprocity
and the principle of ‘something for nothing’ 173
9.3 On Mauss again: anthropology in the 1980s
and 1990s 176

10 Mauss’s research programme revisited: the Mouvement

anti-utilitariste dans les sciences sociales (MAUSS)180
10.1 Utilitarianism and anti-utilitarianism 180
10.2 The gift as a new paradigm for social sciences 182

11 A new Maussian perspective in economics184

11.1 On complexity and economics 184
11.2 Back to the future with Mauss 186

Conclusions: the myth of economics imperialism and the

possibility of a non-imperialist economics 190

Bibliography 197
Index 216
Acknowledgements

The volume embeds the authors’ long-standing concern, and resulting reflections,
on the issue of interdisciplinarity. The perspective here adopted combines the his-
tory of economic ideas with an epistemological and methodological approach to
the limits of economics imperialism. The book builds on some previous works,
and in particular: Gli economisti e i selvaggi (Economists and Savages) by Roberto
Marchionatti (Milano: Bruno Mondadori, 2008); ‘The Economists and Primitive
Societies. A Critique of Economic Imperialism’, by Roberto Marchionatti, The
Journal of Socio-Economics, 41(5), 2012: 529–40; ‘On the Theoretical and
Practical Relevance of the Concept of Gift to the Development of a Non-Imperialist
Economics’, by Mario Cedrini and Roberto Marchionatti, Review of Radical
Political Economics, forthcoming 2016, and ‘Just Another Niche in the Wall?
How Specialization Is Changing the Face of Mainstream Pluralism’, by Mario
Cedrini and Magda Fontana, a revised version of the Department of Economics
and Statistics ‘Cognetti de Martiis’ Working Paper 2015/10, University of Turin.
This book has benefited greatly from the suggestions of several colleagues and
researchers working in the field of economics, anthropology and history, as well
as from feedback received at a number of conferences and workshops. Special
thanks go to Marshall Sahlins and the participants in the second edition of the
workshop ‘Revisiting the Boundaries of Economics. A Historical Perspective’,
held at Collegio Carlo Alberto, Moncalieri (Turin), on 19 May 2011. We also thank
Matteo Aria, conveners of the conference ‘La produzione sociale dell’altruismo:
il dono del sangue tra dono, stato e mercato’, held at Sapienza University, Rome,
on 27–29 November 2013, and the conference participants. We are grateful to
colleagues of the Department of Economics and Statistics ‘Cognetti de Martiis’
of the University of Turin for their participation in a seminar held on 8 May
2014. We are indebted as well to Michael Perelman and participants in the Annual
Conference of the History of Economics Society, held in Montreal on 20–22 June
2014. Finally, we thank Gianluca Cuniberti and participants in the conference
‘Dono, controdono e corruzione. Ricerche storiche e dialogo internazionale’, held
at Fondazione Luigi Einaudi, Turin, on 3–4 December 2015.
Introduction
Origins, evolution and metamorphoses of
economics imperialism, or the need for an
interdisciplinary research programme
on human behaviour

In a recently debated article in the Journal of Economic Perspectives, Marion

Fourcade, Etienne Ollion and Yann Algan (2015) have documented the ongo-
ing insularity of economics within social sciences, mainly in the United States.
Economists believe in their ‘superiority’: they show greater confidence, with
respect to other social scientists, in their own practical mission – fixing the
world’s problems, in Fourcade and colleagues’ terms. And economists believe,
coherently with the ‘economics imperialism’ narrative, in their disciplinary
autonomy. Despite the existence of many schools of thought inside economics,
they easily conceive their field to be unitary and integrated; there is more consen-
sus, in less prosaic words, than in other social sciences. In his qualified defence
of economists’ work as against accusations of reductionist approach to social
phenomena (Rodrik 2015), Harvard economist Dani Rodrik (formerly Albert O.
Hirshman Professor at the School of Social Science at Princeton University) has
recently contested, with some reasons, Fourcade and colleagues’ characterization
of today’s economics as a rigid and homogeneous discipline. He points out in par-
ticular, not without reason, that “economics is a collection of models that admits a
wide variety of possibilities” (Rodrik 2015: 178), and draws attention to the plu-
ralism of research programmes currently pursued in the discipline. Still, it seems
difficult to deny that, as these latter argue, interdisciplinarity – which, following
Choi and Pak’s (2006: 359) definition, “analyzes, synthesizes and harmonizes
links between disciplines into a coordinated and coherent whole”, while multidis-
ciplinarity “draws on knowledge from different disciplines but stays within the
boundaries of those fields” – is much less valued than in sociology or political
sciences. According to a recent study (Gross and Simmons 2007), economists
are the only social scientists who tend to disagree with the idea that interdiscipli-
nary knowledge is better than knowledge obtained from single disciplines. This
is hardly surprising. The story of economics’ relationships with other disciplines
appears essentially as one of imperialism – be it the imperialism of economics
towards social sciences or the more recent and ambiguous “reverse imperialism”
of other disciplines towards economics.
This introduction to the present volume is devoted to discussing economics
imperialism and its evolution over time, with special concern for its relevance
in the current troubled times for both the economy and economics as discipline.
2 Introduction
We maintain that the traditional narrative dating economics imperialism back to
the 1970s, when Chicago economists started popularizing the use of the term, is
in truth misleading, and needs profound revision. Lionel Robbins’s 1932 essay
‘The Nature and Significance of Economic Science’ is admittedly a milestone in
the story of economics imperialism. Still, in a reconstruction of the story of the
uneasy relationships between economics and social sciences expressly centred
upon the problem of economics imperialism, Ben Fine and Dimitris Milonakis
(2009) consider the marginalist revolution as the key passage. Marginalism, they
argue, allowed economists to shift the boundaries separating their own disci-
pline from other social sciences, and to colonize the subject matter of sociology,
anthropology and political science. Fine and Milonakis (2009: 1) regard the
“desocialization and dehistoricization” of economics occurred with the passing
from the political economy of the fathers of economics to the marginalist revolu-
tion as the conditions that made economics imperialism possible. To the contrary,
we advance the thesis that an imperialist orientation characterizes economics since
the dawn of the discipline with Adam Smith. We thus devote a substantial part of
this book to showing how economists’ early analyses of primitive societies – a
fundamental issue in the foundation of political economy – can be taken as shining
illustration of the pugilistic attitude of economics towards other social sciences.
Economics imperialism is usually defined, today (see Mäki 2009), as a form of
economics expansionism that would allow the application of economic approaches
to human behaviour to territories that lie outside the traditional domain of the dis-
cipline of economics. In the last fifty years, in effect, neoclassical and mainstream
economics have greatly expanded their scope of inquiry as well as their spheres of
influence over other social sciences.
In a highly influential and authoritative paper, the American economist Edward
Lazear (2000: 99) attributes this expansion to the fact that economics has “a rigor-
ous language that allows complicated concepts to be written in relatively simple,
abstract terms”, starting from the basic assumption of maximizing behaviour.
This language permits economists “to strip away complexity”, which, although it
may add to the “richness of description”, nevertheless “prevents the analyst from
seeing what is essential” (ibid.: 99–100). Herein lies, Lazear maintains, the power
of economic science and its comparative advantage over the other social sciences.
The role of the other social sciences is to identify issues, that of economics is “to
provide specific, well-reasoned answers” (ibid.: 103). We can therefore observe,
borrowing from Uskali Mäki’s (2009) epistemic perspective, that the justification
for economics imperialism rests, first and foremost, on its supposed capacity of
explanatory unification:

most scientists and most philosophers of science believe that one respect-
able, if not the most respectable, species of scientific achievement amounts
to expanding the domain of phenomena explained by a given theory, or, even
better, by an increasingly parsimonious theory. Most economists seem to
share this conviction.
(Mäki 2009: 3)
 Introduction 3
Economics imperialism is “an implementation” (ibid.) of this view. In truth, the
discipline’s imperialism has come to be associated not so much to parsimony of
theories, as to an ever-growing scope for the discipline itself. In this regard, Mäki
adopts the notion of full consilience, which John Davis (2013a: 205) synthetizes
as “a unity of knowledge idea that counterbalances the virtue of a theory simply
having wide scope”: full consilience seems particularly appropriate in the case
of economics imperialism, which rests upon supporters’ confidence in the unex-
pected possibility to apply the theory to new phenomena. Hence the metaphor of
economics imperialism as colonization of other disciplines: expansionism occurs
in territories that are already occupied by other social sciences. But if the ambition
to explain more by unifying could justify economics imperialism, we must not
lose sight of the fact that economics imperialism occurs “without any invitations”
(Stigler 1984: 311) on the part of other social sciences.
The term ‘economic imperialism’, or, better, ‘economics imperialism’, was
coined by Marshallian New Zealand economist Ralph Souter (Souter 1933),1 to
be then diffused in the 1970s and 1980s by Chicago School economists (see, for
example, Stigler, 1984; Radnitzky and Bernholz, 1987).2 In using the term, these
latter referred, in particular, to works by Gary Becker, who, from the end of the
1950s onwards, relentlessly applied himself to build an “economic approach” (see
Becker 1976a) suitable for the interpretation of a wide variety of social phenomena.
An overview of the expansion and reorientation of economics since Becker’s fun-
damental contribution is presented in Grossbard-Shechtman and Clague (2001a,
2001b). But the historical roots of economics imperialism lie in the theoretical
and methodological revolution of the 1920s and 1930s, accomplished by Frank
Knight, Ludwig Mises and, above all, Lionel Robbins – a revolution that laid the
foundations for the mainstream of economic science in the second part of twen-
tieth century. This change was essentially the result of criticisms of the ­‘classical
situation’, represented by Marshall’s work and legacy, that a new generation of
economists raised while calling for a reconstruction of the economic science
along different lines. They conceived economic theory as the field of application
of exact logic and formalism, and widely adopted the methods of natural sciences,
which they thought would alone guarantee the clearness and rigour necessary for
both theory and empirical research in economics (see Marchionatti 2003). Many
economists expressed doubts and objected to this new approach: Keynes was an
undisputed leader of such critics. He considered economics essentially as a moral
science, and not the natural science appearing in Robbins’s systematization.
Keynes meant that economics belongs to those disciplines that deal with human
beings in their social environment, with their “motives, expectations, psychologi-
cal uncertainties” (Keynes 1973c: 300), with values and introspection; economics
belongs, in other words, to human sciences (Marchionatti 2002 and 2010).
Robbins’s definition of economics as the science that studies human behaviour
as a relation between ends and scarce means that have alternative uses made it evi-
dently possible to include issues and fields traditionally pertaining to the domains
of other social sciences among the explananda of economics. The theoretical fer-
tility of economics’ expansion into new areas, and as corollary its relationships
4 Introduction
with contiguous social sciences, have been widely discussed after economics
imperialism had entered the mainstream.
In Lazear’s perspective, economics would provide well-reasoned answers to
issues identified by other social disciplines – Lazear shares Harold Demsetz’s
idea that evidence of economics’ success comes from “the strong export sur-
plus economics maintain in its trade in ideas and methods with the other social
sciences” (Demsetz 1997: 1). A huge debate has developed around this claim.
Critics belonging to both the orthodoxy and the heterodoxy of the discipline have
severely and widely criticized economics imperialism for impoverishing our abil-
ity to understand phenomena outside the traditional boundaries of economics.
Ronald Coase’s contribution in this regard is particularly relevant. The winner of
the 1991 Nobel Prize in economics expressed the view that economics expands
its boundaries when economists look “for fields in which they can have some
success” (Coase 1978: 203). Imperialists believe that economics is “more devel-
oped”, or “more advanced in its theoretical development” (Buckley and Casson
1993: 1041), so that, Demsetz (1997: 2) argues, this primacy can be established
“even if economics had never influenced other social sciences”. To the contrary,
Coase believes that economics’ primacy owes to its greater analytical general-
ity, as well as to the explanatory power that derives from the “measuring rod of
money” (Coase 1978: 209). Yet this also means that once other scientists will
have discovered “the simple, but valuable, truths which economists have to offer”
(ibid.), these latter will simply lose their comparative advantage. As Fine and
Milonakis (2009) argue, Coase is here exposing the problems affecting neoclassi-
cal economics, which is victim, so to speak, of an inevitable tension. On one side,
neoclassical economics counts upon the presumed universal applicability of its
“open-ended set of concepts . . . most of which are derived from a common set
of assumptions about individual behavior [that] can be used to make predictions
about social behavior” – as Chicago school economist Richard Posner (1987: 2),
a leading figure in the field of law and economics, maintains. On the other, it
suffers from “the practical implication of thereby being rendered unrealistic or
vacuous from the perspective of other more rounded disciplines and methodolo-
gies” (Fine and Milonakis 2009: 7). Economists, Coase maintains, will likely
“study other social systems . . . not with the aim of contributing to law or political
science, but because it is necessary if they are to understand the economic system
itself” (Coase 1978: 210). They will realize that property rights help disclosing the
means by which markets function, that the family and educational systems influ-
ence supply of labour and consumption patterns, and so on. In short, economics
expansionism will have as its purpose that of deepening the understanding of the
economic system. Therefore, Coase’s argument denounces the intrinsic limits of
the “economic approach to human behavior” which Lazear and Demsetz praise
the virtues of in defending standard Chicago imperialism.
Due also, perhaps mainly, to its imperial attitude, economics has been growing
in size and diversity since the heyday of economics imperialism. The development
of the theoretic-information approach and the advent of neo-institutional econom-
ics seem to have somehow damaged the compactness of mainstream economics,
 Introduction 5
which now includes a variety of different research programmes significantly
deviating from the neoclassical core. The rise and coexistence within mainstream
economics of evolutionary game theory, experimental economics, behavioural
economics, evolutionary economics, neuroeconomics and complexity theory
might signal a transition “from neoclassical dominance to mainstream pluralism”
(Davis 2006). Unprecedented specialization in a more and more fragmented disci-
pline (see Cedrini and Fontana 2015, and the references there cited) has increased
awareness of the ‘decreasing returns’ of economics imperialism (see Frey and
Benz 2004, Marchionatti 2008 and 2012, Fine and Milonakis 2009) and opened
up the possibility of cooperation with other disciplines. These latter (psychol-
ogy in primis) have in effect established “limited intellectual ‘colonies’” (Mäki
2013: 336) in economics, their ‘reverse imperialisms’ (see Frey and Benz 2004,
Davis 2013) being at the origins of virtually all the research programmes currently
populating the mainstream of the discipline. Greatly criticized for excluding rival
disciplines, economics imperialism has thus been variously reformulated, in the
attempt to produce a less pugilistic economic approach to intrinsically complex
behaviours and facts.
For sure, mainstream economics is changing face (see Colander 2000;
Colander, Holt and Rosser 2004; Hodgson 2007, Gintis 2007, Davis 2008a and
2008 b, Cedrini and Fontana 2015) and exploring new research paths. The rise and
success of complexity economics and evolutionary game theory promote a new
conception of social interaction, one that involves heterogeneous agents endowed
with limited/bounded rationality, helps focus on institutional structures, and draws
attention on unpredictable, emerging properties of social systems shaped by inter-
actions themselves. Collaboration with other disciplines is a crucial but critical
factor of this transformation. Geoffrey Hodgson (2007: 20) points in fact at the
scarcity of truly interdisciplinary dialogue as an obstacle to such progress, and
advocates a “reconsideration of the nature of and boundaries between the social
sciences, and their possible reorganization on different lines”. Remarkably, vari-
ous ‘mainstream reformers’, so to speak, believe that the desired post-neoclassical
mainstream of the discipline will result from reconciling the competing non-­
neoclassical research programmes in today’s economics, many of them born under
the influence of other social disciplines. Thereby, it is argued, economics will be
able to help solve the “scandalous” (Gintis 2007: 15) problem of today’s “social
sciences pluralism” (Colander 2014), by contributing to developing a common
model of human behaviour.
The American economist and behavioural scientist Herbert Gintis (see Gintis
2007 and 2009) finds in “both mathematical models and common methodologi-
cal principles for gathering empirical data on human behavior and human nature”
(Gintis 2007: 15) the preconditions for constructing a unifying framework for
behavioural sciences. He observes that recent laboratory and field research (see,
respectively, Fehr and Gächter 2000, Henrich et al. 2005) have emphasized
the importance of cooperation and reciprocity, upon which sociologists have
traditionally focused their attention, and revealed the biological-evolutionary
roots of the concept of preference consistency. The main analytical tools of the
6 Introduction
new theoretical framework (that should replace the flawed traditional model of
individual choice behaviour) are thus an evolutionary perspective (gene-culture
coevolution), and game theory (“the universal lexicon of life”; ibid.: 8).
Yet Gintis insists on the continuing relevance of “the most important analyti-
cal construct in the behavioral sciences operating at the level of the individual”
(Gintis 2009: 222), that is, the rational actor model, based on choice consistency,
to represent behaviour; he even resurrects general equilibrium theory in present-
ing his suggestions for a renewed sociology (Gintis and Helbing 2015). Although
the new framework includes an implicit condemnation of economics imperialism,
it is remarkable that Gintis assigns the task of leading the reform to biology in
particular, to be joined by the ‘new’ post-neoclassical economics which might
arise from today’s “mainstream pluralism” (Davis 2006). Edward O. Wilson’s
sociobiology is admittedly an influence on the proposal (see Getty 2007), while
the affinity with Jack Hirshleifer’s ‘economics imperialism’ project of the late
1970s through the early 1980s – proclaiming the impossibility “to carve off a
distinct territory for economics, bordering upon but separated from other social
disciplines. Economics interpenetrates them all, and is reciprocally penetrated by
them . . . There is only one science”, with economics as its “universal grammar”
(Hirshleifer 1985 [1967]: 53) – might be a matter of concern.
It has been argued that a “new” form of economics imperialism has devel-
oped with the advent of the information-theoretic approach in the 1980s, treating
the “social” (explained on the basis of methodological individualism) as a
“rational” response to imperfect market relations (Fine 2000: 14), with the result
that, while economics “takes the social seriously as something distinct from the
economic”, it nevertheless “provides a rationale for it” (ibid.). In this regard,
Gintis’s new framework, allowing room for other disciplines while at the same
time requiring them to respect an imperative of consistency and compatibility,
may represent significant progress. But, as evident from some ambiguities in
Gintis’s own framework, the pluralistic essence of today’s mainstream econom-
ics might fail to provide sufficient conditions for truly democratic exchange
between social disciplines. This requires enhanced understanding of the histori-
cal origins of such imperialistic attitude, in particular, and the removal of its
deep roots, so as to avoid that such dialogue be victim of the above-mentioned
presumed comparative advantage of economics. After Robbins’s tremendously
influential definition of economics as the science of rational choice, in fact, the
refusal to make assertive a priori hypotheses about human behaviour other than
the requirement that they behave consistently – as though they were maximizing
something, this “something” to be named after empirical observations of human
behaviour (see Binmore 2005) – continues to exert an almost irresistible appeal.
The first two sections of this book focus on a territory that persists to be
largely intractable if explored by using the postulates of economics: that of
‘primitive’ societies.3 Primitive societies represent one such territory, and a
fundamental one, due to the historical difficulties experienced in handling their
dynamics by using the conceptual tools of economic theory. The importance
of the subject lies in that primitive, ‘savage’ societies are those that Western
 Introduction 7
thought traditionally considers to be the furthest from modern market societies –
‘the others’ par excellence. Firstly, the book discusses in historical perspec-
tive the various representations of such societies offered by economists since
the dawn of the discipline, from Adam Smith to contemporary economists. It
is claimed that the general economic approach to the study of such societies
configures a fundamental case of economics imperialism, which excludes the
alternative strand of anthropological and sociological reflections on the topic. It
concludes that when applied to primitive societies, economics imperialism rests
on the ideological (not scientific) hypothesis that the primitive man is already,
at least in embryo, a homo oeconomicus. In the third section, it is shown that
in developing the so-called ‘economics of unselfishness’, the discipline has not
succeeded in removing the theoretical and methodological foundations of the
homo oeconomicus paradigm and economics imperialism. The main thesis the
book aims at analysing in depth and generalizing is that the explanatory power
of economics imperialism in territories that are traditionally occupied by other
disciplines shows ‘decreasing returns’. Economics imperialism offers a reduc-
tionist interpretation of primitive economies that, however seductive, is truly
poor in interpretative power.
By retracing the origins of economics imperialism back to the birth of the
discipline, our analysis offers suggestions to current ‘economics reformers’. The
attempt to construct a theoretical framework to make compatible the heretofore
alternative approaches of behavioural disciplines requires economists to address
the original sin of economics imperialism, if economics is to participate in the
formulation of a new, unified framework to analyse human behaviour. We thus
maintain, in the fourth section and in the conclusions, that it is only by approach-
ing the neglected tradition of sociological and anthropological studies on the
socio-political foundations of our societies that economics can hope to contribute
to a democratic cooperation between social sciences. It is only on these bases,
therefore, that it can aspire to participate in the launch of a new, interdiscipli-
nary in essence, research program on human behaviour. With this aim in mind,
the book ends with proposing the possible lines of a research programme on the
foundations of a non-imperialist economics.
The book explores in particular the concept of gift and gift exchange, around
which primitive societies are structured. While a great part of the anthropological-
sociological literature has considered gift-giving as the foundation of a radically
different sociality from the one underlying the contested economicist paradigm of
“rational fools” (Sen 1977), economics has substantially failed to participate in
the interdisciplinary debate organized by social sciences around the gift through-
out the twentieth century. We show that by tacitly establishing the universality of
economics on the hypothesis that the primitive man is already a homo oeconomi-
cus, economics has refused to address the complexity of the gift. We thus argue
that the reintroduction of the concepts of gift and gift exchange into the economic
discourse can encourage an innovating discourse on economics, contributing to
laying down the foundations of an anti-imperialist turn. Having highlighted the
central role played by the gift in organizing an important transdisciplinary debate
8 Introduction
on the socio-political foundations of modern societies, we elaborate on the leg-
acy of Marcel Mauss’s pioneering study (and the literature it has inspired) for a
rede­finition of economics on non-imperialist bases. Last, we throw light on the
political essence of Keynes’s late plans of global reform, thereby providing a con-
crete illustration of the still-to-be-explored potential offered by a rediscovery of
the ‘political anthropology’ of the gift in today’s economic discourse.

A note on the quotations in this volume

We use both single and double quotes in the book, the former for concepts, the
latter for direct quotations. We thus diverge from the usual UK style, but also
remove any possible cause of confusion that might arise in the text.

Notes
1 It should be reminded that Souter did not use the phrase ‘economic imperialism’ in
the sense usually meant. In his criticism of Lionel Robbins’s Essay, he wrote that the
“salvation of economic science . . . lies in an enlightened and democratic ‘economic
imperialism’, which invades the territories of its neighbours, not to enslave them . . . but
to aid and enrich them and promote their autonomous growth in a very process of aiding
and enriching them” (Souter 1933: 94n).
2 Focusing on the University of Chicago, which is considered as the historical epicentre
of economics imperialism, Nik-Khah and Van Horn (2012), situate Chicago economics
imperialism in the context of a wide political project started in the 1950s, led in first
instance by Aaron Director and George Stigler, aiming at forging a new liberalism.
3 Following the tradition in economics, we use the term ‘primitive’ to refer essentially to
those societies that ethnologists call ‘hunter-gatherer’ societies. Traditionally, this latter
category of hunter-gatherers is used for societies whose subsistence was based on the
hunting of wild animals, the gathering of wild plant foods and fishing; recent research
has produced a more nuanced understanding of hunter-gatherer societies. In particular,
the original ‘hunter-gatherer versus agriculturalist’ approach to classifying human cul-
tures has been supplemented by a more sophisticated analysis that reflects a continuum
of such activities, rather than a dichotomy. It is now recognized that hunter-gatherers use
a variety of strategies allowing them to manage the resources on which their subsistence
relies (see Lee and Daly, 2001; Fowler and Turner, 2001).
Part I

At the roots of economics

imperialism
Classical and neoclassical economics
and the issue of primitive societies
Part I is devoted to economists’ explanatory models of primitive societies in the
history of economic thought.
Chapter 1 deals with Smith’s classical model of the “early and rude state of
society” and Marx’s analysis of pre-capitalistic societies in his philosophical and
economic works. Smith and Marx are shown to share the idea that primitive socie-
ties are affected, as Smith puts it, by the absence of division of labour, which is the
engine of growth. The analyses of the two great classical economists are preceded
by an excursus on the interpretations of savage peoples by philosophers from
Montaigne to the Enlightenment, the purpose being to understand the intellectual
context of the analysis of the economists.
Chapter 2 deals with the neoclassical-formalist model of rational choice
applied to primitive man. The model was developed in the 1940s and 1950s by the
anthropologists Raymond Firth and Melville Herskovitz; Robbins’s and Knight’s
neoclassical economics clearly influenced their approach. Firth and Herskovitz
described the primitive economy as a locus wherein rational choice is limited by
customs and institutions, compelling individuals to behave irrationally. Increasing
attention paid to non-market institutions by neoclassical economists since the
1970s has produced new interpretative models of primitive societies based on
transaction costs and information-theoretic approaches. Richard Posner’s theory
provides the most significant and ambitious model, which explains many distinc-
tive primitive institutions as adaptations to the uncertainty of the environment
or to the existence of high information costs. The influence of sociobiology in
economics, essentially through the work of Jack Hirshleifer, and in anthropol-
ogy with the birth of the behavioural ecology of hunter-gatherers, significantly
strengthens Posner’s thesis of a rational (maximizing in the economic sense)
behaviour of primitives.
1 The distant origins of economics
imperialism
Classical economists and primitive
societies

1.1 Travellers, philosophers and the savages

1.1.1 The travel literature, a source for philosophers’ reflections
In the second part of the eighteenth century, when Smith’s foundation of politi-
cal economy took shape, information on the ‘savage nations’ of North America,
Asia, West Africa and the Pacific was rather extensive. At the end of the 1870s,
“the Great Map of Mankind” (a phrase used by the English philosopher and polit-
ical thinker Edmund Burke in a letter of 9 June 1777, to the Scottish historian
William Robertson, on the occasion of the publication of Robertson’s History of
America) was considered well known: “the Great Map of Mankind is unrolled
at once.” This was primarily all the result of the vast accumulation of travellers’
accounts over more than two centuries following the discovery of America, the
great event that changed the perception of the world by Europeans and caused the
encounter with ‘other’ new peoples. There follows a survey of the most important
and influential among them.
In the first part of the sixteenth century, Giovanni da Verazzano’s and Jacques
Cartier’s voyages of exploration in the service of the king of France to the Americas
provided the first accounts of the native peoples of North America. Then published
were Jean de Léry’s (1536–1613) Histoire d’un voyage faict en la terre du Brésil
autrement dite Amérique (1578) and André Thevet’s (1516–92) Singularités de
la France antarctique (1557) – France antarctique was a French colony estab-
lished in Guanabara Bay at Rio de Janeiro which existed between 1555 and 1567.
These two were the texts at the basis of Montaigne’s essai on the cannibals. These
works testify to France’s role in the sixteenth century as an important centre of
interest in the non-European worlds, in particular North America. This role inten-
sified in the seventeenth century with publication of some of the most important
works from the ethnographic point of view, rich with information on the manners
and customs of the Canadian Indians. The first were the Voyages de la Nouvelle
France (1619 and 1632) by the French explorer Samuel Champlain (1574–1635),
“the father of New France”, and the Histoire de la Nouvelle France (1619) by the
author and poet Marc Lescarbot (1570–1641), based on his expedition to Acadia,
a colony of New France in north-eastern North America. They were followed by
the Grand Voyage au pays des Huron (1632) by the French Franciscan missionary
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
 Politics - Learning Objectives
Winter 2022 - School

Prepared by: Dr. Jones

Date: August 12, 2025

Summary 1: Learning outcomes and objectives

Learning Objective 1: Research findings and conclusions
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 1: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Learning Objective 2: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Learning Objective 3: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Learning Objective 4: Key terms and definitions
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Learning Objective 5: Current trends and future directions
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Study tips and learning strategies
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
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- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 6: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Best practices and recommendations
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
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- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 7: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Key terms and definitions
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Experimental procedures and results
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Practice Problem 9: Experimental procedures and results
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 10: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Appendix 2: Study tips and learning strategies
Definition: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
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- Note: Important consideration
Important: Study tips and learning strategies
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
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Note: Research findings and conclusions
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
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Example 14: Historical development and evolution
• Practical applications and examples
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Definition: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Key terms and definitions
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- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 16: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
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- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Historical development and evolution
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
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- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 19: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice Problem 19: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Section 3: Key terms and definitions
Important: Best practices and recommendations
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Literature review and discussion
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Important: Experimental procedures and results
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 23: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Practical applications and examples
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Historical development and evolution
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Note: Practical applications and examples
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 26: Current trends and future directions
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Study tips and learning strategies
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Research findings and conclusions
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
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- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 29: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Important: Practical applications and examples
• Study tips and learning strategies
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- Note: Important consideration
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Introduction 4: Interdisciplinary approaches
Practice Problem 30: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 31: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice Problem 31: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Practical applications and examples
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- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 32: Study tips and learning strategies
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
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- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Case studies and real-world applications
• Literature review and discussion
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- Note: Important consideration
Important: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
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- Note: Important consideration
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Example 36: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Case studies and real-world applications
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- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 37: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice Problem 38: Ethical considerations and implications
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 39: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Test 5: Historical development and evolution
Definition: Experimental procedures and results
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
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- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 41: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Key terms and definitions
• Fundamental concepts and principles
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- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Current trends and future directions
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- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 43: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 44: Experimental procedures and results
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 46: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 47: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Ethical considerations and implications
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Ethical considerations and implications
• Research findings and conclusions
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- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Ethical considerations and implications
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Abstract 6: Literature review and discussion
Remember: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Key terms and definitions
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 53: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Definition: Best practices and recommendations
• Best practices and recommendations
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- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 55: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Important: Study tips and learning strategies
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
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- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 56: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Key terms and definitions
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- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 57: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 58: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
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- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 59: Literature review and discussion
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Part 7: Fundamental concepts and principles
Key Concept: Research findings and conclusions
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice Problem 61: Ethical considerations and implications
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 62: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Study tips and learning strategies
• Best practices and recommendations
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- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Literature review and discussion
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- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Study tips and learning strategies
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Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice Problem 65: Research findings and conclusions
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Note: Ethical considerations and implications
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Historical development and evolution
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 69: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Learning outcomes and objectives
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- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
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Abstract 8: Comparative analysis and synthesis
Example 70: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 72: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Key Concept: Key terms and definitions
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Key terms and definitions
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 76: Current trends and future directions
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 77: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Important: Research findings and conclusions
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Literature review and discussion
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Best practices and recommendations
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
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[Figure 80: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Appendix 9: Experimental procedures and results
Note: Practical applications and examples
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Historical development and evolution
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Best practices and recommendations
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Key Concept: Historical development and evolution
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Definition: Experimental procedures and results
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Practical applications and examples
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Unit 10: Comparative analysis and synthesis
Important: Experimental procedures and results
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
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- Note: Important consideration
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Key Concept: Key terms and definitions
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Practice Problem 92: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 93: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice Problem 93: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Learning outcomes and objectives
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- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 94: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Definition: Case studies and real-world applications
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
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Definition: Learning outcomes and objectives
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[Figure 96: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice Problem 96: Best practices and recommendations
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
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[Figure 97: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
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