Bacteria Cell Structure

They are as unrelated to human beings as living things can be, but bacteria are essential to
human life and life on planet Earth. Although they are notorious for their role in causing human
diseases, from tooth decay to the Black Plague, there are beneficial species that are essential to
good health.

For example, one species that lives symbiotically in the large intestine manufactures vitamin K,
an essential blood clotting factor. Other species are beneficial indirectly. Bacteria give yoghurt its
tangy flavour and sourdough bread its sour taste. They make it possible for ruminant animals
(cows, sheep, goats) to digest plant cellulose and for some plants, (soybean, peas, alfalfa) to
convert nitrogen to a more usable form.

Bacteria are prokaryotes, lacking well-defined nuclei and membrane-bound organelles, and with
chromosomes composed of a single closed DNA circle. They come in many shapes and sizes,
from minute spheres, cylinders and spiral threads, to flagellated rods, and filamentous chains.
They are found practically everywhere on Earth and live in some of the most unusual and
seemingly inhospitable places.

Evidence shows that bacteria were in existence as long as 3.5 billion years ago, making them
one of the oldest living organisms on the Earth. Even older than the bacteria are the archaeans
(also called archaebacteria) tiny prokaryotic organisms that live only in extreme environments:
boiling water, super-salty pools, sulphur-spewing volcanic vents, acidic water, and deep in the
Antarctic ice. Many scientists now believe that the archaea and bacteria developed separately
from a common ancestor nearly four billion years ago. Millions of years later, the ancestors of
today's eukaryotes split off from the archaea. Despite the superficial resemblance to bacteria,
biochemically and genetically, the archaea are as different from bacteria as bacteria are from
humans.

In the late 1600s, Antoni van Leeuwenhoek became the first to study bacteria under the
microscope. During the nineteenth century, the French scientist Louis Pasteur and the German
physician Robert Koch demonstrated the role of bacteria as pathogens (causing disease). The
twentieth century saw numerous advances in bacteriology, indicating their diversity, ancient
lineage, and general importance. Most notably, a number of scientists around the world made
contributions to the field of microbial ecology, showing that bacteria were essential to food webs
and for the overall health of the Earth's ecosystems. The discovery that some bacteria produced
compounds lethal to other bacteria led to the development of antibiotics, which revolutionised the
field of medicine.

There are two different ways of grouping bacteria. They can be divided into three types based on
their response to gaseous oxygen. Aerobic bacteria require oxygen for their health and existence
and will die without it. Anaerobic bacteria cannot tolerate gaseous oxygen at all and die when
exposed to it. Facultative anaerobes prefer oxygen, but can live without it.

The second way of grouping them is by how they obtain their energy. Bacteria that have to
consume and break down complex organic compounds are heterotrophs. This includes species
that are found in decaying material as well as those that utilise fermentation or respiration.
Bacteria that create their own energy, fueled by light or through chemical reactions, are
autotrophs.

● Capsule - Some species of bacteria have a third protective covering, a capsule made up
of polysaccharides (complex carbohydrates). Capsules play a number of roles, but the
most important are to keep the bacterium from drying out and to protect it from
phagocytosis (engulfing) by larger microorganisms. The capsule is a major virulence
factor in the major disease-causing bacteria, such as Escherichia coli and
Streptococcus pneumoniae. Nonencapsulated mutants of these organisms are
avirulent, i.e. they don't cause disease.
● Cell Envelope - The cell envelope is made up of two to three layers: the interior
cytoplasmic membrane, the cell wall, and -- in some species of bacteria -- an outer
capsule.
● Cell Wall - Each bacterium is enclosed by a rigid cell wall composed of peptidoglycan, a
protein-sugar (polysaccharide) molecule. The wall gives the cell its shape and surrounds
the cytoplasmic membrane, protecting it from the environment. It also helps to anchor
appendages like the pili and flagella, which originate in the cytoplasm membrane and
protrude through the wall to the outside. The strength of the wall is responsible for
keeping the cell from bursting when there are large differences in osmotic pressure
between the cytoplasm and the environment.
Cell wall composition varies widely amongst bacteria and is one of the most important
factors in bacterial species analysis and differentiation. For example, a relatively thick,
meshlike structure that makes it possible to distinguish two basic types of bacteria. A
technique devised by Danish physician Hans Christian Gram in 1884, uses a staining
and washing technique to differentiate between the two forms. When exposed to a gram
stain, gram-positive bacteria retain the purple colour of the stain because the structure of
their cell walls traps the dye. In gram-negative bacteria, the cell wall is thin and releases
the dye readily when washed with an alcohol or acetone solution.
● Cytoplasm - The cytoplasm, or protoplasm, of bacterial cells is where the functions for
cell growth, metabolism, and replication are carried out. It is a gel-like matrix composed
of water, enzymes, nutrients, wastes, and gases and contains cell structures such as
ribosomes, a chromosome, and plasmids. The cell envelope encases the cytoplasm and
all its components. Unlike the eukaryotic (true) cells, bacteria do not have a membrane
enclosed nucleus. The chromosome, a single, continuous strand of DNA, is localised, but
not contained, in a region of the cell called the nucleoid. All the other cellular components
are scattered throughout the cytoplasm.
● One of those components, plasmids, are small, extrachromosomal genetic structures
carried by many strains of bacteria. Like the chromosome, plasmids are made of a
circular piece of DNA. Unlike the chromosome, they are not involved in reproduction.
Only the chromosome has the genetic instructions for initiating and carrying out cell
division, or binary fission, the primary means of reproduction in bacteria. Plasmids
replicate independently of the chromosome and, while not essential for survival, appear
to give bacteria a selective advantage.
Plasmids are passed on to other bacteria through two means. For most plasmid types,
copies in the cytoplasm are passed onto daughter cells during binary fission. Other types
of plasmids, however, form a tubelike structure at the surface called a pilus that passes
copies of the plasmid to other bacteria during conjugation, a process by which bacteria
exchange genetic information. Plasmids have been shown to be instrumental in the
transmission of special properties, such as antibiotic drug resistance, resistance to heavy
metals, and virulence factors necessary for infection of animal or plant hosts. The ability
to insert specific genes into plasmids have made them extremely useful tools in the fields
of molecular biology and genetics, specifically in the area of genetic engineering.
Cytoplasmic Membrane - A layer of phospholipids and proteins, called the cytoplasmic
membrane, encloses the interior of the bacterium, regulating the flow of materials in and
out of the cell. This is a structural trait bacteria share with all other living cells; a barrier
that allows them to selectively interact with their environment. Membranes are highly
organised and asymmetric having two sides, each side with a different surface and
different functions. Membranes are also dynamic, constantly adapting to different
conditions.
● Flagella - Flagella (singular, flagellum) are hairlike structures that provide a means of
locomotion for those bacteria that have them. They can be found at either or both ends of
a bacterium or all over its surface. The flagella beat in a propeller-like motion to help the
bacterium move toward nutrients; away from toxic chemicals; or, in the case of the
photosynthetic cyanobacteria; toward the light.
● Nucleoid - The nucleoid is a region of cytoplasm where the chromosomal DNA is
located. It is not a membrane bound nucleus, but simply an area of the cytoplasm where
the strands of DNA are found. Most bacteria have a single, circular chromosome that is
responsible for replication, although a few species do have two or more. Smaller circular
auxiliary DNA strands, called plasmids, are also found in the cytoplasm.
● Pili - Many species of bacteria have pili (singular, pilus), small hairlike projections
emerging from the outside cell surface. These outgrowths assist the bacteria in attaching
to other cells and surfaces, such as teeth, intestines, and rocks. Without pili, many
disease-causing bacteria lose their ability to infect because they're unable to attach to
host tissue. Specialised pili are used for conjugation, during which two bacteria exchange
fragments of plasmid DNA.
● Ribosomes - Ribosomes are microscopic "factories'' found in all cells, including bacteria.
They translate the genetic code from the molecular language of nucleic acid to that of
amino acids—the building blocks of proteins. Proteins are the molecules that perform all
the functions of cells and living organisms. Bacterial ribosomes are similar to those of
eukaryotes, but are smaller and have a slightly different composition and molecular
structure. Bacterial ribosomes are never bound to other organelles as they sometimes
are (bound to the endoplasmic reticulum) in eukaryotes, but are free-standing structures
distributed throughout the cytoplasm. There are sufficient differences between bacterial
ribosomes and eukaryotic ribosomes that some antibiotics will inhibit the functioning of
bacterial ribosomes, but not a eukaryote, thus killing bacteria but not the eukaryotic
organisms they are infecting.
 CORONAVIRUS

Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is the virus behind

the worldwide outbreak of COVID-19 disease. One of the key biological
characteristics of SARS-CoV-2, as well as several other viruses, is the presence of
spike proteins that allow these viruses to penetrate host cells and cause infection.

Image Credit: MattLphotography/Shutterstock.com

An overview of the coronavirus structure

Coronaviruses (CoVs) like the Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS)-CoV, which
had infected almost 2,500 individuals by the end of 2019, as well as the novel severe
acute respiratory syndrome (SARS)-CoV-2, are enveloped and spherical viruses that
typically measure between 80 and 120 nanometers (nm) in size.

The RNA genome of coronaviruses, which, at a median length of 29 kb is the longest

among all RNA viruses, comprises six to ten open reading frames (ORFs) that are
responsible for encoding both the replicase and structural proteins for the virus.
Each of the components of the viral genome is packaged into a helical nucleocapsid
that is surrounded by a lipid bilayer.

The viral envelope of coronaviruses is typically made up of three proteins that

include the membrane protein (M), the envelope protein (E), and the spike protein
(S).

Image Credit: Orpheus FX/Shutterstock.com

Spike protein functions

The S protein is a highly glycosylated and large type I transmembrane fusion protein
that is made up of 1,160 to 1,400 amino acids, depending upon the type of virus.

As compared to the M and E proteins that are primarily involved in virus assembly,
the S protein plays a crucial role in penetrating host cells and initiating infection.

Notably, the presence of S proteins on the coronaviruses is what gives rise to the
spike-shaped protrusions found on their surface.
S proteins of coronaviruses can be divided into two important functional subunits,
which include the N-terminal S1 subunit, which forms the globular head of the S
protein, and the C-terminal S2 region that forms the stalk of the protein and is
directly embedded into the viral envelope.

Upon interaction with a potential host cell, the S1 subunit will recognize and bind to
receptors on the host cell, whereas the S2 subunit, which is the most conserved
component of the S protein, will be responsible for fusing the envelope of the virus
with the host cell membrane.

How S protein allows coronaviruses to enter cells

Once the S1 subunit binds to host cell receptors, two major conformational changes
must occur for the S2 subunit to complete the fusion of the virus to the cell
membrane. The two components of the S2 subunit that are involved in the
coronavirus fusion include heptad repeat (HR) regions one and two, otherwise
referred to as HR1 and HR2.

The first conformation, otherwise referred to as pre-hairpin, involves the

transformation of an unstructured linker within the S2 subunit to become helical. The
second conformational change to occur involves the inversion of this subunit’s
C-helix to the coil, resulting in the formation of a six-helix bundle.

Once these conformations are completed, the fusion peptide is anchored to the
membrane of the host cell to allow the virus to move closer towards the cell
membrane and eventually deliver the nucleocapsid to the target cell.

Targeting viruses via the S protein

Without the S protein, viruses like the novel SARS-CoV-2 would not be able to
interact with the cells of potential hosts like animals and humans to cause infection.
As a result, the S protein represents an ideal target for vaccine and antiviral research
endeavours.

In addition to its role in penetrating cells, the S protein of viruses, particularly the
SARS-CoV-2 virus, is a major inducer of neutralising antibodies (NAbs). NAbs are
protective antibodies that are naturally produced by our humoral immune system.

To elicit their antiviral activity, NAbs bind to the surface epitopes of viral particles to
prevent their entry into a host cell. Some of the NAbs that have been identified
against SARS-CoV include 80R, CR3014, and CR3022, all of which specifically
target the S1 domain.

The sensitivity of the S protein of SARS-CoV-2 to these NAbs has led many
researchers to be interested in developing standardised agents that can block the
binding and fusion of the S protein of SARS-CoV-2 to host cells.

Although one recent study has found that the neutralisation capability of CR3022
against the SARS-CoV-2 region binding domain (RBD) within the S1 subunit is
uncertain, another study on both Ebola and SARS viruses has found that a cocktail
of NAbs has stronger neutralisation capabilities as compared to when these NAbs
are given alone.

This information, therefore, leads researchers to believe that a combination of

several potent NAbs has the potential to target SARS-CoV-2 and increase its
sensitivity to neutralisation.

References
● Belouzard, S., Millet, J. K., Licitra, B. N., & Whittaker, G. R. (2012).
Mechanisms of Coronavirus Cell Entry Mediated by the Viral Spike Protein.
Viruses 4(6); 1011-1033. doi:10.3390/v4061011.
● Wang, Q., Wong, G., Lu, G., Yan, J., & Gao, G. F. (2016). MERS-CoV spike
protein: Targets for vaccines and therapeutics. Antiviral Research 133;
165-177. doi:10.1016/j.antiviral.2016.07.015.
● Zhou, G., & Zhao, Q. (2020). Perspectives on therapeutic neutralising
antibodies against the Novel Coronavirus SARS-CoV-2. International Journal
of Biological Sciences 16(10); 1718-1723. doi:10.7150/ijbs.45123.
Ear is one of the most important sense organs
present in the body of a living being which is responsible for hearing and
taking care of equilibrium. As sensitive as it is, it plays an important role in
detecting different kinds of sound, transmitting, and transducing them. Even
when we are asleep, our ears are at work. There are three most essential parts
of the ear, known as the outer ear, the inner ear, and the middle ear. Each of
them is associated with important and unique functions to work together. They
are situated in different places inside the ear.
What is Ear?
The ear is a sensitive sense organ that is responsible for hearing and
maintaining body balance. We are highly dependent on this sensitive organ for
getting our work done on time, storing important information, understanding
people, and more importantly, keeping a good balance! The ear holds the most
control of our auditory system. The primary function of our ears is to catch the
sound waves and work on converting them into electric waves for the brain to
perceive, and maintain balance.

Most of the animals present have an external ear. The external ear is also
present in humans, which goes by the name pinna. It is the fleshy part that is
visible to the naked eyes. Pinna or auricle is made of yellow elastic cartilages
and opens into the ear canal. Our ears may be affected due to many diseases
or conditions which will ultimately lead to permanent hearing loss or disorders
in balance. It is crucial we be vigilant and remain on the lookout for these
signs so as to treat them immediately.

Human Ear
Difference between Bone and Cartilage
Structure of Ear
The human ear consists of 3 primary parts which are essential for hearing.
These are the outer ear, inner ear, and inner year. These are situated in
different places. The ear canal belonging to the outer region of the ear is
separated from the air-filled tympanic cavity of the middle ear.

Structure of Ear

External Ear/Outer Ear

Pinna: Also known as the auricle, this is a fleshy part and is situated at the
external side of the ear. There are two sets of muscles located here, intrinsic
and extrinsic. It has been found that some mammals have the ability to adjust
the direction of the pinna, whereas, in humans, pinna almost has a negligible
effect. The auricle holds a thin plate of elastic cartilage which is masked by a
dermal layer. There are funnel-like curves present which are responsible for
collecting sound waves and sending them to the ear. The ear lobe is also
present here. The lobule is made of adipose and fibrous tissues which are
fueled by blood capillaries.

External Auditory Meatus: Held together by a bone in the interior part, and by
the cartilage in the outer region, the external auditory meatus is a slightly
curvy canal. It is associated with the function of equalising air pressure which
is present inside the middle ear with the external air pressure. The meatus is
lined along with the stratified epithelium and wax glands.
Tympanic Membrane: This membrane separates the middle ear from the
external ear. The external auditory canal provides a medium for the sound to
flow to the tympanic membrane. After receiving the sound waves, it enhances
and magnifies them. The tympanic membrane or the eardrum is thin and
semi-transparent by nature. Its central part is known as the umbo.

Outer Ear

Read More: NCERT Solutions for Class 11 Biology

Middle Ear
This is present between the outer ear and the inner ear. It consists of three
important parts which are known as the tympanic cavity, the eustachian tube,
and the ear ossicles.

Tympanic Cavity: The tympanic cavity is filled with air and has been separated
from the external ear by the tympanic membrane. It is also separated from the
inner wall because of the bony wall. The membrane consists of 3 ossicles and
the ligaments which are attached to them. These ossicles are named malleus,
incus, and stapes. Their job is to receive the sound, amplify it, and transmit it
to the inner ear, all the way from the eardrum. Stapes are known as the
smallest bone in the body. This cavity has an auditory tube called the
eustachian tube.

Eustachian Tube: Associated with equalising air pressure, on either side of the
membrane, this tube joins the tympanic cavity with the nasopharynx. The tube
has a size of 4 cm.

Ear Ossicles: The ossicles are responsible for transmitting sound waves from
the eardrum to the middle ear. The three main ossicles present are:
 ● Malleus- This is present in the shape of a hammer which is attached to
the tympanic membrane. It is joined to the membrane by the help of the
handle, and to the incuse because of the head. It is the largest ear
ossicle present inside the human body.
● Incus- It is connected with the stapes, and has an anvil-like shape.
● Stapes- It is the smallest ossicle as well as the smallest bone in the
human body. When it vibrates, the frequency of the vibration is
transferred through the oval window, and the fluid within the cochlea
starts moving.

Middle Ear

Inner Ear
The inner ear is present inside a cavity, which is called a bony labyrinth. This
compartment consists of the membranous labyrinth, which is contained inside
the temporal bone.

Bony Labyrinth: It consists of a vestibule, three semicircular canals, and a

spiral cochlea. Apart from this, two reverses filled with fluid are also present
and go by the names utricle and saccule. The cochlea serves its purpose by
defining the sense of hearing. It is filled with perilymph fluid.

Membranous Labyrinth: It includes sensory receptors which help us hear.

These receptors are cristae, the organ of Corti, and ampullary macula. The
receptors also assist the human body in maintaining an optimal balance. The
labyrinth is filled with endolymph. This organ of Corti is responsible for
converting the mechanical form of energy of the sound, into nervous energy,
with the help of electric impulses.
 Inner Ear

Functions of Ear
All the living beings present on the face of Earth, require an ear to hear. But,
hearing is not the only speciality ears have. Hearing and balance are two
foremost important functions of the ear. Let us see how it helps us achieve
these actions.

● Hearing

The ear assists our body in hearing by letting the sound waves pass all the
way through the auditory canal, into the eardrum. The vibrations which are
produced in the process, make way through the tympanic membrane into the
tympanic cavity. The three ear ossicles present within the cavity grab these
vibrations, as the smallest ossicle, the stapes pushes the oval window in and
out, or pumps it up. As a result, it is passed onto the Organ of the Corti. Tiny
hair cells present inside this, absorb this vibration and transform them into an
electrical impulse, which the brain finally perceives as sound through the
sensory nerves.

● Balance
You may be stationary, or in motion, it is necessary that our bodies remain
balanced. Static balance is achieved with the help of utricle and saccule, the
three semicircular canals provide a dynamic balance. The eustachian tube and
the vestibular complex are crucial to help maintain a pepper balance in your
body. The elongated tube works towards equalising the air pressure in the
middle ear and actively contributes to maintaining a suitable posture.
Meanwhile, the vestibular complex contains sensory receptors, which help
balance the overall body.

Read More: Conduction of Nerve Impulse

Things to Remember
● Ear is a sense organ that is responsible for hearing and body balance.
● There are parts of the ear namely the outer ear, the inner ear, and the
middle ear.
● The external or outer ear consists of the pinna that collects all sounds to
the tympanic membrane and provides an idea about the source of the
sound, present in its vertical plane.
● The cochlea gets into work in the inner ear and helps maintain a balance
of the body, both static and dynamic.
● The ear ossicles transmit the sound waves to the inner ear and are as
important as other organs in the body.
● Hammer, anvil, and stirrup are associated with the function of amplifying
the sound waves.
● Ears have the ability to self-clean with the presence of earwax.
● Earwax is responsible for trapping all the dust, and debris stuck inside,
thereby creating a barrier to the ear canal, to help in the cleaning
process.
A Detailed Look at the Eye
The human eye is a fascinating sensory organ that is often referred to as the window to the
soul. The structure of the eye is intricate and allows us to see the world around us.

The front surface of the eye is called the cornea, a transparent layer that offers
protection and allows for light to enter the eye. Surrounding the cornea is the white
parts of the eye called the sclera, which wrap around and provide the round
structure of the eyeball. Behind the cornea is a fluid-filled space called the anterior
chamber and behind this space is the coloured part of the eye called the iris. The
iris is the most distinct feature that we notice when we look at someone's eyes.
Different eye colours exist due to a difference in melanocytes in the irises, the same
cells responsible for the production of our skin colour. In the middle of the iris is a
hole called the pupil, which can widen or narrow as the iris around it contracts or
relaxes. The pupil controls the amount of light that enters into the eye. Behind the
pupil and the iris is another fluid-filled space called the posterior chamber. The fluid
that fills the anterior and posterior chambers is called aqueous humor which is
produced by the ciliary body. If you’ve ever wondered what the front of the human
eye looks like at high resolution, photographer Suren Manvelyan has captured it
through his series “Your Beautiful Eyes”.

Behind the posterior chamber is a transparent disk called the crystalline lens, which
serves to further transmit and focus the incoming light towards the back of the eye.
The lens is held in place by string-like suspensory ligaments called zonules. When
A Detailed Look at the Eye
The human eye is a fascinating sensory organ that is often referred to as the window to the
soul. The structure of the eye is intricate and allows us to see the world around us.

the lens turns cloudy or opaque, it blocks the incoming light and decreases our ability
to see, this is called a cataract.

Behind the lens is a large space taking up most of the volume of the eye, called the
vitreous body which is filled with a jelly-like substance called the vitreous humor.
Behind the vitreous body, at the very back of the eye, is a layer called the retina,
which contains millions of light-sensitive cells that detect light. These detected light
signals all gather at a structure called the optic nerve on the retina, which connects
the eye to the brain. This is how we are able to perceive the world when we look at
something. Throughout the retina, blood vessels are present to supply nourishment
to this tissue. Located near the centre of the retina is a structure called the macula,
this area provides clear and sharp central vision important for our daily tasks, such
as reading.

Other structures surrounding the eye that help with its function include the eyelids
which is a thin fold of skin that covers and protects the front of the eye, and
extraocular muscles that attach to the eyeball to allow for eye movements.
Gross Anatomy of Bones
A long bone has two main regions: the diaphysis and the epiphysis
(Figure 6.3.1). The diaphysis is the hollow, tubular shaft that runs
between the proximal and distal ends of the bone. Inside the diaphysis
is the medullary cavity, which is filled with yellow bone marrow in an
adult. The outer walls of the diaphysis (cortex, cortical bone) are
composed of dense and hard compact bone, a form of osseous tissue.

The wider section at each end of the bone is called the epiphysis (plural
= epiphyses), which is filled internally with spongy bone, another type
of osseous tissue. Red bone marrow fills the spaces between the spongy
bone in some long bones. Each epiphysis meets the diaphysis at the
metaphysis. During growth, the metaphysis contains the epiphyseal
plate, the site of long bone elongation described later in the chapter.
When the bone stops growing in early adulthood (approximately 18–21
years), the epiphyseal plate becomes an epiphyseal line seen in the
figure.

Lining the inside of the bone adjacent to the medullary cavity is a layer
of bone cells called the endosteum (endo- = “inside”; osteo- = “bone”).
These bone cells (described later) cause the bone to grow, repair, and
remodel throughout life. On the outside of bones there is another layer
of cells that grow, repair and remodel bone as well. These cells are part
of the outer double layered structure called the periosteum (peri– =
“around” or “surrounding”). The cellular layer is adjacent to the cortical
bone and is covered by an outer fibrous layer of dense irregular
connective tissue (see Figure 6.3.4a). The periosteum also contains
blood vessels, nerves, and lymphatic vessels that nourish compact
bone. Tendons and ligaments attach to bones at the periosteum. The
periosteum covers the entire outer surface except where the epiphyses
meet other bones to form joints (Figure 6.3.2). In this region, the
epiphyses are covered with articular cartilage, a thin layer of hyaline
cartilage that reduces friction and acts as a shock absorber.

Figure 6.32 – Periosteum and Endosteum: The periosteum forms the outer surface
of bone, and the endosteum lines the medullary cavity.

Flat bones, like those of the cranium, consist of a layer of diploë (spongy
bone), covered on either side by a layer of compact bone (Figure 6.3.3).
The two layers of compact bone and the interior spongy bone work
together to protect the internal organs. If the outer layer of a cranial
bone fractures, the brain is still protected by the intact inner layer.
 Figure 6.3.3
– Anatomy of a Flat Bone: This cross-section of a flat bone shows the spongy bone
(diploë) covered on either side by a layer of compact bone.

Osseous Tissue: Bone

Matrix and Cells
Bone MatrixOsseous tissue is a connective tissue and like all connective
tissues contains relatively few cells and large amounts of extracellular
matrix. By mass, the osseous tissue matrix consists of 1/3rd collagen
fibres and 2/3rds calcium phosphate salt. The collagen provides a
scaffolding surface for inorganic salt crystals to adhere (see Figure
6.3.4a). These salt crystals form when calcium phosphate and calcium
carbonate combine to create hydroxyapatite. Hydroxyapatite also
incorporates other inorganic salts like magnesium hydroxide, fluoride,
and sulphate as it crystallises, or calcifies, on the collagen fibres. The
hydroxyapatite crystals give bones their hardness and strength, while
the collagen fibres give them a framework for calcification and gives
the bone flexibility so that it can bend without being brittle. For
example, if you removed all the organic matrix (collagen) from a bone, it
would crumble and shatter readily (see Figure 6.3.4b, upper panel).
Conversely, if you remove all the inorganic matrix (minerals) from bone
and leave the collagen, the bone becomes overly flexible and cannot
bear weight (see Figure 6.3.4b, lower panel).

Figure 6.3.4a Calcified collagen fibres

from bone (scanning electron micrograph, 10,000 X, By Sbertazzo – Own work, CC
BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=20904735)

Figure 6.3.4b Contributions of the

organic and inorganic matrices of bone. Image from Ammerman figure 6-5,
Pearson

Bone Cells
Although bone cells compose less than 2% of the bone mass, they are
crucial to the function of bones. Four types of cells are found within
bone tissue: osteoblasts, osteocytes, osteogenic cells, and osteoclasts
(Figure 6.3.5).
Figure 6.3.5 – Bone Cells: Four types of cells are found within bone tissue.
Osteogenic cells are undifferentiated and develop into osteoblasts. Osteoblasts
deposit bone matrix. When osteoblasts get trapped within the calcified matrix, they
become osteocytes. Osteoclasts develop from a different cell lineage and act to
resorb bone.

The osteoblast is the bone cell responsible for forming new bone and is
found in the growing portions of bone, including the endosteum and
the cellular layer of the periosteum. Osteoblasts, which do not divide,
synthesise and secrete the collagen matrix and other proteins. As the
secreted matrix surrounding the osteoblast calcifies, the osteoblast
becomes trapped within it; as a result, it changes in structure and
becomes an osteocyte, the primary cell of mature bone and the most
common type of bone cell. Each osteocyte is located in a small cavity in
the bone tissue called a lacuna (lacunae for plural). Osteocytes maintain
the mineral concentration of the matrix via the secretion of enzymes.
Like osteoblasts, osteocytes lack mitotic activity. They can
communicate with each other and receive nutrients via long
cytoplasmic processes that extend through canaliculi (singular =
canaliculus), channels within the bone matrix. Osteocytes are
connected to one another within the canaliculi via gap junctions.

If osteoblasts and osteocytes are incapable of mitosis, then how are

they replenished when old ones die? The answer lies in the properties
of a third category of bone cells—the osteogenic (osteoprogenitor) cell.
These osteogenic cells are undifferentiated with high mitotic activity
and they are the only bone cells that divide. Immature osteogenic cells
are found in the cellular layer of the periosteum and the endosteum.
They differentiate and develop into osteoblasts.

The dynamic nature of bone means that new tissue is constantly

formed, and old, injured, or unnecessary bone is dissolved for repair or
for calcium release. The cells responsible for bone resorption, or
breakdown, are the osteoclasts. These multinucleated cells originate
from monocytes and macrophages, two types of white blood cells, not
from osteogenic cells. Osteoclasts are continually breaking down old
bone while osteoblasts are continually forming new bone. The ongoing
balance between osteoblasts and osteoclasts is responsible for the
constant but subtle reshaping of bone. table 6.3 reviews the bone cells,
their functions, and locations.

Bone Cells (Table 6.3)

Cell type Function Location

Osteogenic Develop into Endosteum, cellular layer of the

cells osteoblasts periosteum

Endosteum, cellular layer of the

Osteoblasts Bone formation
periosteum, growing portions of bone

Maintain mineral
Osteocytes concentration of Entrapped in matrix
matrix

Endosteum, cellular layer of the

Osteoclasts Bone resorption periosteum, at sites of old, injured, or
unneeded bone

Compact and Spongy

Bone
Most bones contain compact and spongy osseous tissue, but their
distribution and concentration vary based on the bone’s overall
function. Although compact and spongy bones are made of the same
matrix materials and cells, they are different in how they are organised.
Compact bone is dense so that it can withstand compressive forces,
while spongy bone (also called cancellous bone) has open spaces and is
supportive, but also lightweight and can be readily remodelled to
accommodate changing body needs.

Compact Bone
Compact bone is the denser, stronger of the two types of osseous tissue
(figure 6.3.6). It makes up the outer cortex of all bones and is in
immediate contact with the periosteum. In long bones, as you move
from the outer cortical compact bone to the inner medullary cavity, the
bone transitions to spongy bone.
 Figure 6.3.6
– Diagram of Compact Bone: (a) This cross-sectional view of compact bone shows
several osteons, the basic structural unit of compact bone. (b) In this micrograph of
the osteon, you can see the concentric lamellae around the central canals. LM × 40.
(Micrograph provided by the Regents of University of Michigan Medical School ©

2012) Figure 6.3.7 Osteon

If you look at compact bones under the microscope, you will observe a
highly organised arrangement of concentric circles that look like tree
trunks. Each group of concentric circles (each “tree”) makes up the
microscopic structural unit of compact bone called an osteon (this is
also called a Haversian system). Each ring of the osteon is made of
collagen and calcified matrix and is called a lamella (plural = lamellae).
The collagen fibres of adjacent lamellae run at perpendicular angles to
each other, allowing osteons to resist twisting forces in multiple
directions (see figure 6.34a). Running down the centre of each osteon is
the central canal, or Haversian canal, which contains blood vessels,
nerves, and lymphatic vessels. These vessels and nerves branch off at
right angles through a perforating canal, also known as Volkmann’s
canals, to extend to the periosteum and endosteum. The endosteum
also lines each central canal, allowing osteons to be removed,
remodelled and rebuilt over time.
The osteocytes are trapped within their lacunae, found at the borders
of adjacent lamellae. As described earlier, canaliculi connect with the
canaliculi of other lacunae and eventually with the central canal. This
system allows nutrients to be transported to the osteocytes and wastes
to be removed from them despite the impervious calcified matrix.

Spongy (Cancellous) Bone

Like compact bone, spongy bone, also known as cancellous bone,
contains osteocytes housed in lacunae, but they are not arranged in
concentric circles. Instead, the lacunae and osteocytes are found in a
lattice-like network of matrix spikes called trabeculae (singular =
trabecula) (figure 6.3.8). The trabeculae are covered by the endosteum,
which can readily remodel them. The trabeculae may appear to be a
random network, but each trabecula forms along lines of stress to
direct forces out to the more solid compact bone providing strength to
the bone. Spongy bone provides balance to the dense and heavy
compact bone by making bones lighter so that muscles can move them
more easily. In addition, the spaces in some spongy bones contain red
bone marrow, protected by the trabeculae, where hematopoiesis
occurs.
 Figure 6.3.8
– Diagram of Spongy Bone: Spongy bone is composed of trabeculae that contain the
osteocytes. Red marrow fills the spaces in some bones.

Aging and the…Skeletal System: Paget’s Disease

Paget’s disease usually occurs in adults over age 40. It is a disorder of

the bone remodelling process that begins with overactive osteoclasts.
This means more bone is resorbed than is laid down. The osteoblasts
try to compensate but the new bone they lay down is weak and brittle
and therefore prone to fracture.

While some people with Paget’s disease have no symptoms, others

experience pain, bone fractures, and bone deformities (figure 6.3.9).
Bones of the pelvis, skull, spine, and legs are the most commonly
affected. When occurring in the skull, Paget’s disease can cause
headaches and hearing loss.
 Figure 6.3.9 – Paget’s

Disease: Normal leg bones are relatively straight, but those affected by Paget’s
disease are porous and curved.

What causes the osteoclasts to become overactive? The answer is still

unknown, but hereditary factors seem to play a role. Some scientists
believe Paget’s disease is due to an as-yet-unidentified virus.

Paget’s disease is diagnosed via imaging studies and lab tests. X-rays
may show bone deformities or areas of bone resorption. Bone scans are
also useful. In these studies, a dye containing a radioactive ion is
injected into the body. Areas of bone resorption have an affinity for the
ion, so they will light up on the scan if the ions are absorbed. In
addition, blood levels of an enzyme called alkaline phosphatase are
typically elevated in people with Paget’s disease. Bisphosphonates,
drugs that decrease the activity of osteoclasts, are often used in the
treatment of Paget’s disease.

Blood and Nerve

Supply
The spongy bone and medullary cavity receive nourishment from
arteries that pass through the compact bone. The arteries enter
through the nutrient foramen (plural = foramina), small openings in the
diaphysis (figure 6.3.10). The osteocytes in spongy bone are nourished
by blood vessels of the periosteum that penetrate spongy bone and
blood that circulates in the marrow cavities. As the blood passes
through the marrow cavities, it is collected by veins, which then pass
out of the bone through the foramina.

In addition to the blood vessels, nerves follow the same paths into the
bone where they tend to concentrate in the more metabolically active
regions of the bone. The nerves sense pain, and it appears the nerves
also play roles in regulating blood supplies and in bone growth, hence
their concentrations in metabolically active sites of the bone.
 Figure 6.3.10 – Diagram of Blood and
Nerve Supply to Bone: Blood vessels and nerves enter the bone through the nutrient
foramen.
Vision Care Optometry Clinic
5.0
(3) Optometrist in Lahore, Pakistan

Address: 8,9 A, 18, commercial Block H Valencia, Lahore, Pakistan

Hours:

Saturday 11 am–10 pm

Sunday 3–10 pm

Monday 11 am–10 pm

Tuesday 11 am–10 pm

Wednesday 11 am–10 pm

Thursday 11 am–10 pm

Friday 3–10 pm

Phone: +92 311 4782424

Visualis
5.0 stars (35) Eye care clinic in Lahore, Pakistan

Address: Plaza no, 23, N Block N Valencia, Lahore, Punjab 54620, Pakistan
Hours:

Saturday 5–9 pm

Sunday Closed

Monday 5–9 pm

Tuesday 5–9 pm

Wednesday 5–9 pm

Thursday 5–9 pm
Friday 5–9 pm

phone: +92 301 5337785

 IMPORTANT INFORMATION

Noor Eye Retina Hospital

5 stars
(2) · Ophthalmologist
Plaza#35, P1 Block, Town · +92 346 5152576
Address: Plaza#35, P1 Block, Town, Block P1 Block P 1 Valencia, Lahore, Punjab 54000,
Pakistan

Saturday 9 am–10:30 pm

Sunday Closed

Monday 9 am–10:30 pm

Tuesday 9 am–10:30 pm

Wednesday 9 am–10:30 pm

Thursday 9 am–10:30 pm

Friday 9 am–10:30 pm

Phone: +92 346 5152576

Visualis
5.0
(35) · Eye Care Clinic
Plaza no, 23 · +92 301 5337785
Closed ⋅ Opens 5 pm

"Dr. Ayub is one of the best eye specialists in Lahore."

Address: Plaza no, 23, N Block N Valencia, Lahore, Punjab 54620, Pakistan

Hours:

Saturday 5–9 pm

Sunday Closed

Monday 5–9 pm

Tuesday 5–9 pm

Wednesday 5–9 pm
Thursday 5–9 pm

Friday 5–9 pm

Phone: +92 301 5337785

Punjab Eye Clinic/ Dr Aneeb Ashraf

4.9
(73) · Eye Care Clinic
A Block Market · +92 333 6348410
Closed ⋅ Opens 7:30 pm Mon
7:30 - 10pm

"Dr Aneeb Ashraf is an excellent Eye Specialist."

Address: A Block Market, Valencia, Lahore, Pakistan

Areas served: Punjab Cooperative Housing Society and nearby areas

Hours: saturday closed

Sunday closed

Monday 7:30 - 10pm

Tuesday 7:30 - 10pm

Wednesday 7:30 - 10pm

Thursday 7:30 - 10pm

Friday 7:30 - 10pm

Phone: +92 333 6348410

Appointments: draneebashraf-eyesurgeon.com
JAPANESE
 Introduction
The lungs and respiratory system work together to allow us to breathe fresh
air, expel stale air, and even talk. Let's go on a journey learning about the
lungs!

Lungs are bag-like organs or body parts that allow you to breathe. They are a
part of the respiratory system of the human body. Lungs are found in all
animals that have a backbone and breathe air. When an animal inhales
(breaths in), oxygen-rich air enters the lungs. Carbon dioxide and water
vapour are ejected from the lungs when an animal exhales (breaths out).
Structure and Simple Lungs Diagram
One on each side of the chest, a human body has two lungs. Between the
lungs is where the heart is located. The lobes of the right lung are three
rounded sections. The left lung is divided into two lobes. The diaphragm is a
strong muscle sheet that rests at the base of each lung. The diaphragm and
the rib muscles automatically tighten and relax during normal breathing. This
movement aids in the filling and emptying of the lungs.

Left and Right Lobes of the Lungs

A series of tubes transport air into and out of the lungs. The trachea, or
windpipe, is a large, tough tube that connects the top of the throat to two
branching tubes called bronchi. Each of these tubes connects to a different
lobe of the lungs. The bronchi are then divided into bronchioles, a web of
smaller tubes. The bronchioles branch off into tiny sacs known as alveoli.

Lungs for Kids

The lungs weigh roughly 40 grams at birth and double in size after 6 months.
The alveoli are small air sacs located at the end of the bronchioles (tiny
branches of air tubes in the lungs). The alveoli are the air sac spaces between
the lungs and the blood where oxygen and carbon dioxide are exchanged
during breathing in and out. Mature pulmonary alveoli begin at 36 weeks of
pregnancy and continue to develop until the child is roughly 2 years old. By
the age of two, when most of the alveolarization process has been finished,
the total lung weight is around 170 g.
Working of Lungs
When you inhale (breathe in), air enters your lungs and transports oxygen to
your blood. Simultaneously, carbon dioxide, a waste gas, travels from your
blood to your lungs and is exhaled (breathed out). This process, known as gas
exchange, is required for life to exist, which is how the lungs work.
Importance of Lungs
To live, every cell in a body requires oxygen. The air breathed contains
oxygen and other gases. When oxygen reaches the lungs, it is carried through
the body via the bloodstream. Gas exchange is a necessary process that the
lungs and respiratory system carry out on their own.
Lung Infections
Coughing, chest pain, and difficulty breathing are common symptoms of lung
problems. Pneumonia and tuberculosis are both serious lung infections.
Emphysema and lung cancer are both fatal lung diseases. One of the leading
causes of emphysema and lung cancer is smoking.
Interesting Facts About Lungs
 ● The lungs are the most important part of the respiratory system in the
human body.
● The lungs take in oxygen from the air and expel carbon dioxide.
● The lungs transport oxygenated blood (oxygen-rich blood flows from the
lungs) to the heart while removing carbon dioxide from the
bloodstream.
● Humans can vocalise sounds and speak, thanks to their lungs.
● The lower respiratory tract includes the human lungs. The nose or
nostrils, nasal cavity, mouth, throat (pharynx), and voice box are the
major passages and structures of the upper respiratory tract (larynx).
● Every 24 hours, an average healthy person will breathe around 2,900
gallons of air.
● The lungs have a dome-shaped diaphragm (a thin skeletal muscle) to
inhale and expel air.
● To create room for the human heart, the left lung is smaller than the
right lung.
● The upper lobe, middle lobe, and lower lobe are the three lobes of the
right lung.
● The upper and lower lobes of the left lung are divided into two sections.
● The left lung of a female human weighs between 105–515 g, while the
right lung weighs between 100–590 g.
● The right lung of a human male weighs between 155–720 g on average,
whereas the left lung weighs
● There are approximately 1,500 miles of airways in both human lungs.

Summary
Every body component requires oxygen from the air a human breathes to
survive. The lungs' fragile structure is responsible for breathing and delivering
oxygen to the rest of the body. At the same time, it aids in the defence of the
body against external threats.
As the central part of the circulatory system, the heart is responsible for pumping
blood, supplying oxygen and nutrients, and removing metabolic waste such as
carbon dioxide from all the tissues in the body. The heart and a network of arteries
and veins comprise the cardiovascular system.

The heart is a vital organ of the body; therefore, minute dysfunctions or abnormalities
in the heart may have drastic consequences on human health. Typically, the heart is
the size of an adult fist and is found enclosed in a pericardial sac at the chest's
centre, tilted to the left, and u

How blood circulates in the heart

The heart consists of four chambers, four one-way valves, and a set of arteries and
veins that regulate the normal flow of blood within the body.

The smooth functioning of the circulatory system is maintained by a complex network

of blood vessels that circulate blood throughout the body and back to the heart.
Whereas veins bring deoxygenated blood back into the heart, those that carry
oxygenated blood away from the heart to other tissues in the body are known as
arteries. The two exceptions to these are the pulmonary arteries and pulmonary
veins, as well as the umbilical artery and vein.

The heart's two upper chambers are called the atria, with the atrial septum dividing
the right and left atria. The superior and inferior vena cava are major veins that
supply the right atrium with deoxygenated blood from the rest of the body.

The superior vena cava brings deoxygenated blood into the right atrium from the
upper limbs and head, whereas deoxygenated blood from the lower abdomen and
limbs is brought into the heart through the inferior vena cava.

The pulmonary veins supply oxygenated blood from the lungs into the left atrium and
are the only veins in the body to carry oxygenated blood.
Both atria contract and release blood into the ventricles when full, a process
controlled by the atrioventricular valves. The flow of deoxygenated blood from the
right atrium into the right ventricle is regulated by the tricuspid valve, while the mitral
valve controls the flow of oxygenated blood from the left atrium to the left ventricle.

The two lower chambers of the heart are called the ventricles. The right ventricle
receives deoxygenated blood that collects in the right atrium. This process occurs by
systematically opening and closing the atrioventricular and semilunar valves.

The semilunar valve connecting the right ventricle to the lungs is the pulmonary
valve. This valve remains closed while the tricuspid valve opens and releases blood
into the right ventricle from the right atrium.

Similarly, the left ventricle receives oxygenated blood from the left atrium through the
mitral valve. During this process, the other semilunar valve, known as the aortic
valve, remains closed to allow the left ventricle to fill with blood. The ventricles
contract when full, subsequently causing the tricuspid and mitral valves to close and
the pulmonary and aortic valves to open on the right and left sides, respectively.
When the right ventricle contracts, deoxygenated blood flows through the pulmonary
valve into the lungs through the pulmonary trunk. The pulmonary trunk splits into the
left and right pulmonary arteries, the only arteries in the body to carry deoxygenated
blood. However, during pregnancy, the umbilical artery will also carry deoxygenated
blood from the fetus to the placenta to re-oxygenate the fetal blood supply.

Oxygenated blood is pumped through the aortic valve into the aorta when the left
ventricle contracts. The aortic valve splits into smaller arteries, known as common
iliac arteries, which carry blood to the rest of the body through a complex network of
arteries.

Structure of the heart

The heart wall is composed of three layers, including the outer epicardium (thin
layer), middle myocardium (thick layer), and innermost endocardium (thin layer). The
myocardium is made up of cardiac muscle fibers and is responsible for the
contraction and relaxation that results in the pumping of the heart.

The two atria have a thinner myocardium layer than the ventricles, as the force
required for atrial contractions is much less than that needed for ventricular
contractions. The walls of the right ventricle are also thinner, as this ventricle only
pumps blood a short distance to the lungs. Comparatively, the left ventricle, which
has much thicker walls, must generate enough force to pump oxygenated blood
throughout the rest of the body.

The myocardium requires a constant supply of oxygen and nutrients to maintain the
contractions and relaxations that keep the heart pumping. This blood supply is
maintained through a set of coronary arteries and veins in the myocardium.

The right and left coronary arteries, which branch off the first section of the aorta
known as the ascending aorta between the left ventricle and aortic arch, supply
blood to a network of capillaries in the myocardium. Deoxygenated blood from the
myocardium is carried through a set of cardiac veins to the right atrium that is
subsequently drained through the coronary sinus.

What is a heartbeat?
On average, the heart beats 100,000 times a day and circulates about 5.6 litres of
blood throughout the body three times a minute. The cardiac cycle, also known as
the heartbeat, begins with deoxygenated blood collecting in the right atrium.

Simultaneously, the left atrium gets filled with oxygenated blood from the lungs. The
sinoatrial node (SA node), located in the right atrium's superior wall, rhythmically
initiates electrical impulses 70-80 times per minute to both atria. The SA node can be
influenced by nerve impulses from the autoimmune nervous system and specific
hormones, such as the thyroid hormone and epinephrine.

The SA node is often referred to as the heart's pacemaker, as it sets the rhythm of
the heartbeat. Additional components of the heart's electrical conduction system
include the atrioventricular node, bundle branches, atrioventricular bundle, and
conduction myofibers known as Purkinje's fibres.

When full, the right and left atria contract together, thereby opening the
atrioventricular valves and draining blood into the right and left ventricles,
respectively. The electrical impulse from the SA node then proceeds through the
His-Purkinje conduction system that stimulates the contraction of the ventricles.

Ventricular contraction pumps oxygenated blood from the left ventricle into the aorta
and the rest of the body, whereas deoxygenated blood from the right ventricle into
the lungs.

The contraction phase of the atria and ventricles is known as systole. Conversely,
the relaxation phase is known as diastole. Systole and diastole constitute one
cardiac cycle, which takes about 0.8 seconds at a normal heart rate.

The heart rate is the number of times the heart beats in one minute. A healthy adult's
resting heart rate varies between 60 and 100 beats a minute. Children usually have
higher heart rates. The heart rate is also affected by emotions, body temperature,
and activity levels.

What is an arrhythmia?
An electrocardiogram (ECG) records electrical signals in the heart and is visualized
in the form of several distinct waves. Cardiac disorders and cardiovascular diseases
can be monitored using an ECG. Arrhythmia, or irregular heartbeat, occurs when the
electrical signals that regulate the cardiac cycle are abnormal.
Ventricular tachycardia is an arrhythmia characterised by frequent, premature
ventricular contractions and indicates underlying myocardial disease. This condition
can lead to ventricular defibrillation, an immediately life-threatening form of
arrhythmia believed to occur due to continuous and aberrant activation of the electric
circuits of the ventricles.

Ventricular defibrillation is characterised by rapid and irregular activation of the

ventricles that ultimately hinder effective ventricle contraction. The inability of the
heart to pump blood out results in an instant drop in blood pressure, which could
lead to death in the absence of immediate electrical defibrillation.

HCL Learning | Structure of the Human Heart

Cardiovascular diseases
Valve malformations and diseases result in a staggering amount of deaths each
year. Stenosis, which is the obstructed outflow of blood and regurgitation or
backward flow of blood due to defective closure of valves, are manifestations of
valve diseases.

Heart sounds are caused by vibrations produced during the closure of valves.
Abnormal heart sounds, or heart murmurs, indicate valve malfunctions.

The most common valve malformations include the bicuspid aortic valve and mitral
valve prolapse. Valve disease can also occur through the degeneration of elastin,
collagen, and proteoglycan layers of the extracellular matrix of the valves.

Coronary heart diseases (CHD) or ischemic heart diseases progress slowly. They
are caused by atherosclerosis, or the buildup of fat, cholesterol, or calcium on the
walls of the coronary arteries that supply blood to the heart. This results in a reduced
supply of oxygenated blood to the heart. Pieces of these fat deposits can also break
off, forming a blood clot that can block the coronary artery, cut off blood supply to the
heart, and cause a heart attack.
Symptoms of CHD include chest pain, nausea, travelling pain through the limbs, and
shortness of breath. High blood pressure, smoking, high cholesterol, diabetes, and
obesity are risk factors for CHD.

References
● The Cardiovascular System [Online]. Available from:
http://www.vascularconcepts.com/content/pages.php?pg=patients_cardio_sys
tem&page=cardiac_cycle
● Anatomy of the Heart [Online]. Available from:
https://www.acls.net/anatomy-of-the-human-heart.htm
● How your heart works [Online]. Available from:
https://www.bhf.org.uk/informationsupport/how-a-healthy-heart-works
● Structure of the heart [Online]. Available from:
https://training.seer.cancer.gov/anatomy/cardiovascular/heart/structure.html