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 45

Linear
Algebra

Michael E. Taylor
Linear
Algebra
UNDERGRADUATE TEXTS • 45

Linear
Algebra

Michael E. Taylor
 EDITORIAL COMMITTEE
Gerald B. Folland (Chair) Steven J. Miller
Jamie Pommersheim Serge Tabachnikov

2010 Mathematics Subject Classification. Primary 15-00, 15-01.

For additional information and updates on this book, visit

www.ams.org/bookpages/anstext-45

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Taylor, Michael E., 1946– author.
Title: Linear algebra : undergraduate texts / Michael E. Taylor.
Description: Providence, Rhode Island : American Mathematical Society, [2020] | Series: Pure
and applied undergraduate texts, 1943-9334 ; volume 45 | Includes bibliographical references
and index. | Summary: “The pdf contains a draft title page, draft copyright page and a draft
manuscript”– Provided by publisher.
Identifiers: LCCN 2020005165 | ISBN 9781470456702 (softcover) | ISBN 9781470459185 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Algebras, Linear. | AMS: Linear and multilinear algebra; matrix theory –
General reference works (handbooks, dictionaries, bibliographies, etc.). | Linear and multilinear
algebra; matrix theory – Instructional exposition (textbooks, tutorial papers, etc.).
Classification: LCC QA184.2 .T39 2020 | DDC 512/.5–dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020005165

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10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 25 24 23 22 21 20
Contents

Preface vii

Some basic notation xiii

Chapter 1. Vector spaces, linear transformations, and matrices 1

1.1. Vector spaces 2
1.2. Linear transformations and matrices 7
1.3. Basis and dimension 13
1.4. Matrix representation of a linear transformation 20
1.5. Determinants and invertibility 22
1.6. Applications of row reduction and column reduction 34

Chapter 2. Eigenvalues, eigenvectors, and generalized eigenvectors 47

2.1. Eigenvalues and eigenvectors 48
2.2. Generalized eigenvectors and the minimal polynomial 54
2.3. Triangular matrices and upper triangularization 60
2.4. The Jordan canonical form 65

Chapter 3. Linear algebra on inner product spaces 71

3.1. Inner products and norms 73
3.2. Norm, trace, and adjoint of a linear transformation 80
3.3. Self-adjoint and skew-adjoint transformations 85
3.4. Unitary and orthogonal transformations 94
3.5. Schur’s upper triangular representation 102
3.6. Polar decomposition and singular value decomposition 106
3.7. The matrix exponential 113

v
vi Contents

3.8. The discrete Fourier transform 126

Chapter 4. Further basic concepts: duality, convexity, quotients, positivity 139

4.1. Dual spaces 141
4.2. Convex sets 143
4.3. Quotient spaces 147
4.4. Positive matrices and stochastic matrices 149

Chapter 5. Multilinear algebra 157

5.1. Multilinear mappings 158
5.2. Tensor products 160
5.3. Exterior algebra 163
2
5.4. Isomorphism Skew(𝑉) ≈ Λ 𝑉 and the Pfaffian 172

Chapter 6. Linear algebra over more general fields 175

6.1. Vector spaces over more general fields 176
6.2. Rational matrices and algebraic numbers 186

Chapter 7. Rings and modules 189

7.1. Rings and modules 191
7.2. Modules over principal ideal domains 203
7.3. The Jordan canonical form revisited 214
7.4. Integer matrices and algebraic integers 217
7.5. Noetherian rings and Noetherian modules 221
7.6. Polynomial rings over UFDs 226

Chapter 8. Special structures in linear algebra 231

8.1. Quaternions and matrices of quaternions 233
8.2. Algebras 240
8.3. Clifford algebras 248
8.4. Octonions 257

Appendix A. Complementary results 277

A.1. The fundamental theorem of algebra 278
A.2. Averaging rotations 280
A.3. Groups 284
A.4. Finite fields and other algebraic field extensions 291

Bibliography 301

Index 303
Preface

Linear algebra is an important gateway connecting elementary mathematics to more

advanced subjects, such as multivariable calculus, systems of differential equations,
differential geometry, and group representations. The purpose of this work is to pro-
vide a treatment of this subject in sufficient depth to prepare the reader to tackle such
further material.
In Chapter 1 we define the class of vector spaces (real or complex) and discuss some
basic examples, including ℝ𝑛 and ℂ𝑛 , or, as we denote them, 𝔽𝑛 , with 𝔽 = ℝ or ℂ. We
then consider linear transformations between such spaces. In particular, we look at an
𝑚 × 𝑛 matrix 𝐴 as defining a linear transformation 𝐴 ∶ 𝔽𝑛 → 𝔽𝑚 . We define the range
ℛ(𝑇) and null space 𝒩(𝑇) of a linear transformation 𝑇 ∶ 𝑉 → 𝑊. In §1.3 we define
the notion of basis of a vector space. Vector spaces with finite bases are called finite
dimensional. We establish the crucial property that any two bases of such a vector space
𝑉 have the same number of elements (denoted dim 𝑉). We apply this to other results on
bases of vector spaces, culminating in the fundamental theorem of linear algebra, that if
𝑇 ∶ 𝑉 → 𝑊 is linear and 𝑉 is finite dimensional, then dim 𝒩(𝑇) + dim ℛ(𝑇) = dim 𝑉,
and we discuss some of its important consequences.
A linear transformation 𝑇 ∶ 𝑉 → 𝑉 is said to be invertible provided it is one-to-one
and onto, i.e., provided 𝒩(𝑇) = 0 and ℛ(𝑇) = 𝑉. In §1.5 we define the determinant of
such 𝑇, det 𝑇 (when 𝑉 is finite dimensional), and show that 𝑇 is invertible if and only
if det 𝑇 ≠ 0. One useful tool in the study of determinants consists of row operations
and column operations. In §1.6 we pursue these operations further, and show how
applying row reduction to an 𝑚 × 𝑛 matrix 𝐴 works to display a basis of its null space,
while applying column reduction to 𝐴 works to display a basis of its range.
In Chapter 2 we study eigenvalues 𝜆𝑗 and eigenvectors 𝑣𝑗 of a linear transforma-
tion 𝑇 ∶ 𝑉 → 𝑉, satisfying 𝑇𝑣𝑗 = 𝜆𝑗 𝑣𝑗 . Results of §1.5 imply that 𝜆𝑗 is a root of the
characteristic polynomial det(𝜆𝐼 − 𝑇). Section 2.2 extends the scope of this study to a
treatment of generalized eigenvectors of 𝑇, which are shown to always form a basis

vii
viii Preface

of 𝑉, when 𝑉 is a finite-dimensional complex vector space. This ties in with a treat-

ment of properties of nilpotent matrices and triangular matrices in §2.3. Combining
the results on generalized eigenvectors with a closer look at the structure of nilpotent
matrices leads to the presentation of the Jordan canonical form for an 𝑛 × 𝑛 complex
matrix in §2.4.
In Chapter 3 we introduce inner products on vector spaces and endow them with
a Euclidean geometry, in particular with a distance and a norm. In §3.2 we discuss two
types of norms on linear transformations, the operator norm and the Hilbert–Schmidt
norm. Then, in §§3.3–3.4, we discuss some special classes on linear transformations on
inner product spaces: self-adjoint, skew-adjoint, unitary, and orthogonal transforma-
tions. In §3.5 we establish a theorem of Schur that for each 𝑛 × 𝑛 matrix 𝐴, there is an
orthonormal basis of ℂ𝑛 with respect to which 𝐴 takes an upper triangular form. Sec-
tion 3.6 establishes a polar decomposition result, that each 𝑛×𝑛 complex matrix can be
written as 𝐾𝑃, with 𝐾 unitary and 𝑃 positive semidefinite, and a related result known
as the singular value decomposition of a complex matrix (square or rectangular).
In §3.7 we define the matrix exponential 𝑒𝑡𝐴 , for 𝐴 ∈ 𝑀(𝑛, ℂ), so that 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑒𝑡𝐴 𝑣
solves the differential equation 𝑑𝑥/𝑑𝑡 = 𝐴𝑥, 𝑥(0) = 𝑣. We produce a power series
for 𝑒𝑡𝐴 and establish some basic properties. The matrix exponential is fundamental to
applications of linear algebra to ordinary differential equations (ODE). Here, we use
this connection to produce another proof that if 𝐴 is an 𝑛 × 𝑛 complex matrix, then
ℂ𝑛 has a basis consisting of generalized eigenvectors of 𝐴. The proof given here is
completely different from that of §2.2.
Section 3.8 takes up the discrete Fourier transform (DFT), acting on functions
𝑓 ∶ ℤ → ℂ that are periodic, of period 𝑛. This transform diagonalizes an impor-
tant class of operators known as convolution operators. This section also treats a fast
implementation of the DFT, known as the fast Fourier transform (FFT).
Chapter 4 introduces some further basic concepts in the study of linear algebra on
real and complex vector spaces. In §4.1 we define the dual space 𝑉 ′ to a vector space.
We associate to a linear map 𝐴 ∶ 𝑉 → 𝑊 its transpose 𝐴𝑡 ∶ 𝑊 ′ → 𝑉 ′ and establish a
natural isomorphism 𝑉 ≈ (𝑉 ′ )′ when dim 𝑉 < ∞. Section 4.2 looks at convex subsets
of a finite-dimensional vector space. Section 4.3 deals with quotient spaces 𝑉/𝑊 when
𝑊 is a linear subspace of 𝑉.
In §4.4 we study positive matrices, including the important class of stochastic ma-
trices. We establish the Perron–Frobenius theorem, which states that, under a further
hypothesis called irreducibility, a positive matrix has a positive eigenvector, unique
up to scalar multiple, and we draw useful corollaries for the behavior of irreducible
stochastic matrices.
Chapter 5 deals with multilinear maps and related constructions, including tensor
products in §5.2 and exterior algebra in §5.3, which we approach as a further devel-
opment of the theory of determinants, initiated in §1.5. Results of this chapter are
particularly useful in the development of differential geometry and manifold theory,
involving studies of tensor fields and differential forms.
In Chapter 6 we extend the scope of our study of vector spaces, adding to ℝ and
ℂ more general fields 𝔽. We define the notion of a field, give a number of additional
Preface ix

examples, and describe how results of Chapters 1, 2, 4, and 5 extend to vector spaces
over a general field 𝔽. Specific fields considered include both finite fields, such as ℤ/(𝑝),
and fields of algebraic numbers. In §6.2 we show that the set 𝒜 of algebraic numbers,
which are roots of polynomials with rational coefficients, are precisely the eigenvalues
of square matrices with rational entries. We use this, together with some results of §5.2,
to obtain a proof that 𝒜 is a field, different from that given in §6.1. This line is carried
forward in the next chapter, where we identify the ring of algebraic integers with the
set of eigenvalues of square matrices with integer entries.
In Chapter 7 we extend the scope of linear algebra further, from vector spaces over
fields to modules over rings. Specific rings considered include the ring ℤ of integers,
rings of polynomials, and matrix rings. We discuss ℛ-linear maps between two ℛ-
modules, for various rings ℛ, with an emphasis on commutative rings with unit. We
pay particular interest, in §7.2, to modules over principal ideal domains (PIDs). Ex-
amples of PIDs include both ℤ and polynomial rings 𝔽[𝑡]. In §7.3 we revisit results
obtained in §2.2 and §2.4 on generalized eigenspaces and the Jordan canonical form
for 𝐴 ∈ ℒ(𝑉), and show how they follow from results on the structure of ℛ-modules
in §7.2, when ℛ = 𝔽[𝑡].
Section 7.5 introduces the class of Noetherian rings and the associated class of Noe-
therian modules. This class of rings, defined by a certain finiteness condition, contains
the class of PIDs. It also contains other important classes of rings, in particular poly-
nomial rings in several variables, thanks to a fundamental result known as the Hilbert
basis theorem. Section 7.6 treats unique factorization domains (UFDs), and shows that
this class of rings shares with the class of Noetherian rings the property of being pre-
served under passing from ℛ to ℛ[𝑥].
In Chapter 8 we encounter a sample of special structures in linear algebra. Section
8.1 deals with quaternions, objects of the form 𝑎+𝑏𝑖 +𝑐𝑗 +𝑑𝑘 with 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑 ∈ ℝ, which
form a noncommutative ring ℍ, with a number of interesting properties. In particular,
the quaternion product captures both the dot product and the cross product of vectors
in ℝ3 . We also discuss matrices with entries in ℍ, paying special attention to a family
of groups Sp(𝑛) ⊂ 𝑀(𝑛, ℍ).
Section 8.2 discusses the general concept of an algebra, an object that is simultane-
ously a vector space over a field 𝔽 and a ring, such that the product is 𝔽-bilinear. Many
of the rings introduced earlier, such as ℒ(𝑉) and ℍ, are algebras, but some, such as ℤ
and ℤ[𝑡], are not. We introduce some new ones, such as the tensor algebra ⊗∗ 𝑉 associ-
ated to a vector space, and the tensor product 𝒜⊗ℬ of two algebras. Properly speaking,
these algebras are associative algebras. We briefly mention a class of nonassociative al-
gebras, known as Lie algebras, and another class, known as Jordan algebras.
Section 8.3 treats an important class of algebras called Clifford algebras. These
are intimately related to the construction of a class of differential operators known as
Dirac operators. Section 8.4 treats an intriguing nonassociative algebra called the alge-
bra of octonions (or Cayley numbers). We discuss similarities and differences with the
algebra of quaternions, and also examine its particularly intriguing group of automor-
phisms.
x Preface

We end with some appendices, treating some background material as well as com-
plementary topics. Appendix A.1 gives a proof of the Fundamental Theorem of Alge-
bra, that every nonconstant polynomial with complex coefficients has complex roots.
This result has several applications in §2.1 and §2.2. Appendix A.2 takes up the notion
of averaging a set of rotations. We produce the average as a solution to a minimization
problem.
Appendix A.3 brings up another algebraic structure, that of a group. It describes
how various groups have arisen in the text, and it presents some general results on these
objects, with emphasis on two classes of groups: infinite matrix groups like 𝐺ℓ(𝑛, ℝ)
on the one hand, and groups like the permutation groups 𝑆𝑛 , which are finite groups,
on the other. We cap our treatment of basic results on groups with a discussion of
an application to a popular encryption scheme, based on a choice of two large prime
numbers.
Appendix A.4 produces new fields 𝔽 ˜ from old fields, constructed so that a polyno-
mial 𝑃 ∈ 𝔽[𝑥] without roots in 𝔽 will have roots in 𝔽˜. In particular, we obtain all finite
fields in this fashion, proceeding from the fields ℤ/(𝑝). Material in this appendix pro-
vides a further arsenal of fields to which the results of Chapter 6 apply, and also puts
the reader in a position to tackle treatments of Galois theory.
The material presented in this text could serve for a two-semester course in linear
algebra. For a one-semester course, I recommend a straight shot through Chapters 1–
4, with attention to Appendices A.1 and A.3. Material in Chapters 5–7 and a selection
from Chapter 8 and the appendices could work well in a second-semester course. To
be sure, there is considerable flexibility in the presentation of this material. For exam-
ple, one might move the treatment of vector spaces over general fields way up, say, to
follow Chapter 2 directly. In any case, I encourage the student/reader to sample all
the sections as an encounter with the wonderful mathematical subject that is linear
algebra.

We point out some distinctive features of this treatment of linear algebra.

(1) Basics first. We start with vector spaces over the set ℝ of real numbers or the set ℂ
of complex numbers, and linear transformations between such vector spaces. Thus the
reader who has seen multivariable calculus should be comfortable with the setting of
the early chapters. We treat the two cases simultaneously and use the label 𝔽 to apply
either to ℝ or to ℂ, as the occasion warrants. This is a forward-looking strategy, since
we will later on consider vector spaces over general fields, denoted 𝔽, and the reader
can appreciate the early material on this more general level with minimal effort.

(2) Development of determinants. The determinant is a fundamental tool in linear al-

gebra. Many treatments of this topic start with a complicated formula, involving a
sum of products of matrix entries, as a proposed definition of the determinant, and
this is rightly seen as off-putting. However, there is a better way. Section 1.5 estab-
lishes that there is a unique function 𝜗 ∶ 𝑀(𝑛, 𝔽) → 𝔽, satisfying three simple rules,
and this defines the determinant. A straightforward application of these rules leads to
the formula mentioned above, but one does not have to remember this formula, just
the three simple rules. They lead directly to essential results, such as multiplicativity,
Preface xi

det 𝐴𝐵 = (det 𝐴)(det 𝐵), and also invariance of the determinant under certain column
operations. That nasty formula does have one simple, useful consequence, namely
det 𝐴 = det 𝐴𝑡 , which also allows one to bring in row operations.
(3) Contact with geometry and analysis. We get into metric properties of linear spaces
in Chapter 3 and associate norms both to elements of a vector space and to linear trans-
formations. We draw parallels between metric properties of inner product spaces and
𝑛-dimensional Euclidean geometry. One use of norms is to be able to treat infinite se-
ries of linear transformations, in particular the matrix exponential, which ties in with
systems of differential equations.
(4) Going beyond basics. After Chapter 4 we start to extend the scope of linear algebra
beyond the study of linear transformations between a pair of real or complex vector
spaces.
We look at multilinear algebra, the study of multilinear maps on an 𝑛-tuple of vec-
tor spaces, i.e., maps that are linear in each of the 𝑛 arguments. Actually such an object
arose in §1.5, the determinant, which, acting on an 𝑛×𝑛 matrix, was analyzed as acting
on an 𝑛-tuple of column vectors. In Chapter 5 we take this further, and tie in theories
of multilinear maps with tensor products and exterior algebras, the latter topic directly
extending the theory of the determinant.
Next, we look at vector spaces over general fields, a concept defined in Chapter 6.
The way we set up the earlier chapters, once we define the concept of a field 𝔽, most of
the material of Chapters 1, 2, 4, and 5 extends in a straightforward fashion to this more
general setting.
The next step extends the theory of vector spaces over a field to that of modules over
a ring, taken up in Chapter 7. Substantially new phenomena arise in this expanded
setting. Some of the constructions here feed back to material of Chapter 6, in that the
theory of rings provides further material on the theory of fields.

Acknowledgments. Thanks to Robert Bryant for useful conversations related to var-

ious topics treated here, particularly regarding octonions.
During the preparation of this book, my research has been supported by a number of
NSF grants, most recently DMS-1500817.
Some basic notation

ℝ is the set of real numbers.

ℂ is the set of complex numbers.

ℤ is the set of integers.

ℤ+ is the set of integers ≥ 0.

ℕ is the set of integers ≥ 1 (the natural numbers).

ℚ is the set of rational numbers.

𝑥 ∈ ℝ means 𝑥 is an element of ℝ, i.e., 𝑥 is a real number.

(𝑎, 𝑏) denotes the set of 𝑥 ∈ ℝ such that 𝑎 < 𝑥 < 𝑏.

[𝑎, 𝑏] denotes the set of 𝑥 ∈ ℝ such that 𝑎 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑏.

{𝑥 ∈ ℝ ∶ 𝑎 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑏} denotes the set of 𝑥 in ℝ such that 𝑎 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑏.

[𝑎, 𝑏) = {𝑥 ∈ ℝ ∶ 𝑎 ≤ 𝑥 < 𝑏} and (𝑎, 𝑏] = {𝑥 ∈ ℝ ∶ 𝑎 < 𝑥 ≤ 𝑏}.

𝑧 = 𝑥 − 𝑖𝑦 if 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 ∈ ℂ, 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ ℝ.

𝑓 ∶ 𝐴 → 𝐵 denotes that the function 𝑓 takes points in the set 𝐴 to points

in 𝐵. One also says 𝑓 maps 𝐴 to 𝐵.

𝑥 → 𝑥0 means the variable 𝑥 tends to the limit 𝑥0 .

xiii
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