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Participatory Learning in
the Early Years
Routledge Research in Education

1. Learning Communities 9. Spatial Theories of Education

in Education Policy and Geography Matters
Edited by John Retallick, Barry Edited by Kalervo N. Gulson and
Cocklin and Kennece Coombe Colin Symes

2. Teachers and the State 10. Balancing Dilemmas in

International Perspectives Assessment and Learning in
Mike Bottery and Nigel Wright Contemporary Education
Edited by Anton Havnes and
3. Education and Psychology Liz McDowell
in Interaction
Working with Uncertainty in 11. Policy Discourses, Gender,
Inter-Connected Fields and Education
Brahm Norwich Constructing Women’s Status
Elizabeth J. Allan
4. Education, Social Justice and
Inter-Agency Working 12. Improving Teacher Education
Joined up or Fractured Policy? through Action Research
Sheila Riddell and Lyn Tett Edited by Ming-Fai Hui
and David L. Grossman
5. Markets for Schooling
An Economic Analysis 13. The Politics of Structural
Nick Adnett and Peter Davies Education Reform
Keith A. Nitta
6. The Future of Physical Education
Building a New Pedagogy 14. Political Approaches to
Edited by Anthony Laker Educational Administration
and Leadership
7. Migration, Education and Change Edited by Eugenie A. Samier
Edited by Sigrid Luchtenberg with Adam G. Stanley

8. Manufacturing Citizenship 15. Structure and Agency in the

Education and Nationalism in Europe, Neoliberal University
South Asia and China Edited by Joyce E. Canaan and
Edited by Véronique Bénéï Wesley Shumar
16. Postmodern Picturebooks
Play, Parody, and Self-Referentiality
Edited by Lawrence R. Sipe and
Sylvia Pantaleo

17. Play, Creativity and

Digital Cultures
Edited By Rebekah Willet,
Muriel Robinson and Jackie Marsh

18. Education and Neoliberal

Globalization
Carlos Alberto Torres

19. Tracking Adult Literacy and

Numeracy Skills
Findings in Longitudinal Research
Edited by Stephen Reder and
John Bynner

20. Emergent Computer Literacy

A Developmental Perspective
Helen Mele Robinson

21. Participatory Learning in

the Early Years
Research and Pedagogy
Edited by Donna Berthelsen,
Jo Brownlee and Eva Johansson
Participatory Learning in
the Early Years
Research and Pedagogy

Edited by Donna Berthelsen,

Jo Brownlee and Eva Johansson

New York London

First published 2009
by Routledge
270 Madison Ave, New York, NY 10016

Simultaneously published in the UK

by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN

Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business

This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2008.

“To purchase your own copy of this or any of Taylor & Francis or Routledge’s
collection of thousands of eBooks please go to www.eBookstore.tandf.co.uk.”

© 2009 Taylor & Francis

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised
in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereaf-
ter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or
retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers.

Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trade-

marks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe.

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

Participatory learning in the early years : research and pedagogy / edited by Donna
Berthelsen, Jo Brownlee, and Eva Johansson.
p. cm.—(Routledge research in education ; 21)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
1. Early childhood education—Social aspects. 2. Social learning. I. Berthelsen,
Donna. II. Brownlee, Jo. III. Johansson, Eva, 1949–
LB1139.23.P37 2009
303.3'2—dc22
2008030946

ISBN 0-203-88355-1 Master e-book ISBN

ISBN10: 0-415-98974-4 (hbk)

ISBN10: 0-203-88355-1 (ebk)

ISBN13: 978-0-415-98974-9 (hbk)

ISBN13: 978-0-203-88355-6 (ebk)
Contents

Figures ix
Tables xi
Preface xiii

1 Participatory Learning: Issues for Research and Practice 1

DONNA BERTHELSEN

2 International Perspectives on Participatory Learning:

Young Children’s Perspectives across Rich
and Poor Countries 12
HELEN PENN

3 The Guiding Principles of Participation:

Infant, Toddler Groups and the United Nations
Convention on the Rights of the Child 26
BERENICE NYLAND

4 ‘Doing the Right Thing’: A Moral Concern from the

Perspectives of Young Preschool Children 44
EVA JOHANSSON

5 The Desirable Toddler in Preschool: Values

Communicated in Teacher and Child Interactions 61
ANETTE EMILSON AND EVA JOHANSSON

6 Friendships and Participation among Young Children

in a Norwegian Kindergarten 78
ANNE GREVE
viii Contents
7 Beliefs About Toddler’s Learning in
Child Care Programs in Australia 93
JO BROWNLEE AND DONNA BERTHELSEN

8 In Support of a Relationship-Based Approach to

Practice with Infants and Toddlers in the United States 109
MARY MCMULLEN AND SUSAN DIXON

9 Looking and Listening for Participatory Practice

in an English Day Nursery 129
PAULETTE LUFF

10 Dialogue, Listening and Discernment in Professional Practice

with Parents and their Children in an Infant Program:
A Canadian Perspective 145
ENID ELLIOT

11 “If You Think They Can Do It—Then They Can”:

Two-Year-Olds in Aotearoa New Zealand Kindergartens
and Changing Professional Perspectives 164
JUDITH DUNCAN

12 Fairness in Participation in Preschool 185

ARTIN GÖNCÜ, CATHERINE MAIN
AND BARBARA ABEL

13 Contexts, Pedagogy and Participatory Learning:

A Way Forward 203
JO BROWNLEE

Contributors 209
Author Index 213
Subject Index 215
Figures

5.1 Values of caring, democracy and discipline. 65

8.1 Relationship as an intersection of mindful,

reflective, and respectful practices. 111

8.2 The primary spheres of interaction connected

to the infant/toddler and family. 114

8.3 The secondary spheres of influence in the

infant/toddler and family’s life, those connected to
one of the primary spheres of influence, the caregiver. 115

8.4 The universe of potential relationships surrounding

the infant/toddler and family. 116

11.1 Two years old and feet don’t touch the floor. 172

11.2 Peg board viewed from a two-year-old’s height. 173

11.3 Play dough table from a two-year-old’s height. 174

11.4 Puzzle tables. 174

11.5 Play dough table. 175

13.1 Contexts, pedagogy, and participatory learning. 204

Tables

7.1 Description of Child Care Teachers 98

7.2 Beliefs about Toddlers’ learning 100

Preface

The development of this book, Participatory Learning in the Early Years:

Research and Pedagogy, has been a cross-cultural project with many
dimensions. First and foremost, we wanted to shed light on the experiences
of the youngest participants in group care settings and their teachers across
national contexts. We wanted to gather researchers and educators from
different parts of the world interested in the experiences of the youngest
children who take part in early childhood programs.
Many young children across national contexts now participate in group
programs from a very early age. However, we know very little about how
these young children ‘live’ their lives in their group care settings; how
they experience their encounters with peers and teachers; what they learn;
and under what conditions they learn. We also know little about how
educators working with these young citizens perceive their goals; what
their aspirations are in their work; and how they view and relate to the
children. Why is there a lack of shared information? There might be many
explanations for this but one is related to how young children and their
teachers are valued by society. How we value children is determined by
what rights we accord to them, notes the philosopher David Archard in
his book, Children, Rights and Childhood. Our understanding is that
young children and their teachers in a broad sense are given low positions
in society, even if we can fi nd that there is now greater advocacy for young
children and interest in their experiences. By its core theme, this book can
be viewed as one example of this interest in children’s rights to participa-
tory learning programs.
We base this book on assumptions that learning is relational, as well as
culturally and contextually embedded; and that young children in group
care settings, in one way or another, take part in the learning processes
in those settings. The book is also based on values that young children do
have a right to be involved in learning programs that afford participation
as well as democratic approaches to how they are involved in their learning
contexts. The issue and tension is, however, what is participatory learn-
ing and democratic approaches to practice with respect to young children
across contexts? How much participation are infants and toddlers afforded
xiv Preface
and in what ways? There is of course not one answer. Participatory learning
is viewed in different ways in theory and practice. However, children’s par-
ticipation is ultimately the responsibility of adults and society. Ultimately,
this is both a question of power and of intersubjectivity. To be able to take
part requires physical and mental “room” for this participation, as well as
intersubjective agreements about giving and taking. To let someone take
part in something also means that we (as educators) need to step back and
give power to the participant (the child). This can be, from a teacher’s per-
spective, a difficult and risky project. It presupposes both knowledge and
awareness of how participation can be afforded to young children. In the
book, we fi nd several dilemmas that characterize professional practice that
reflect fundamental and ongoing ethical questions about the experiences of
very young children in early childhood programs.
Conditions for young children’s participation are given and created by
sociocultural contexts in group care settings in which teachers and chil-
dren take active parts. These are concerns of the contributing authors of
this book who all have different professional experiences in working, and
researching with young children. The authors represent different cultural
contexts and different disciplines. The common interest for all the writers
is, however, a deep concern for young children and their teachers. Still, the
chapters differ substantially with regard to how the experiences of very
young children in group settings are explored and understood in theory
and practice; as well as the assumptions about children and childhood on
the important issues of participation. This diversity and community is both
the advantage and the challenge in this book. Across the chapters ideas are
explored about the manner in which young children’s participation and
learning can be understood in practice.
In the fi rst chapter, Donna Berthelsen provides an introduction to issues
around young children’s participatory learning in early education. She dis-
cusses ideas about culture and how it can be understood as operating at dif-
ferent levels and dynamically. Four themes central to the book are explored.
These themes are culture and context and young children’s learning; socio-
cultural theorizing and learning; participation as a right; and learning as
participation. In the next chapter, Helen Penn discusses the wide variations
in assumptions about childhood and adult-child relationships and, conse-
quently, the wide variations in understanding childhood across national
contexts. Berenice Nyland then considers the different theories informing
early childhood practice and assumptions within those theories about chil-
dren’s rights and participation. Her discussion is focused on the importance
of a human rights perspective. Subsequent chapters by Eva Johansson,
Anette Emilson, and Anne Greve present examples of research on chil-
dren’s learning underpinned by philosophical assumptions about children’s
life-worlds in the everyday interactions that they have with peers and teach-
ers in preschool. These chapters, respectively, address how young children’s
morality has its own characteristics in relation to children’s premises,
 Preface xv
rather than the premises of adults; the kinds of citizenship qualities that are
explicit or implicit, in everyday interactions between teachers and toddlers
in pedagogical practice in Sweden; and children’s early learning through
friendship in the course of which they learn about ethics and cooperation.
The chapter by Jo Brownlee and Donna Berthelsen uses personal episte-
mological theory to explore the nature of beliefs about children’s learning
held by group leaders in toddler child care programs in Australia. Mary
McMullen and Susan Dixon make a case for the importance of relation-
ship-focused practice and how such practice form a basis for relational and
participatory pedagogy. Successive chapters by Paulette Luff, Enid Elliot,
and Judith Duncan report on action-oriented research in early childhood
settings to support participatory learning with very young children. They
illustrate the complexities and the possibilities of working with infants and
toddlers and their families, across national contexts that include the United
Kingdom, Canada, and New Zealand, respectively. The chapter by Artin
Göncü, Barbara Abel, and Catherine Main describes features of a gradu-
ate preservice teacher education program in the United States that seeks to
promote democracy in early childhood education. Embedded in this profes-
sional practice program, at another level, is a focus on how early childhood
teachers’ practices can support social inclusion, fairness, and participation.
This book concludes with a chapter by Jo Brownlee discussing the way
forward. How can the various themes in the book be connected to advance
theorizing and research about young children’s participatory learning?
This work focused on the important issue of participatory learning of
very young children in early childhood programs has been an exciting chal-
lenge and we are most grateful to all the contributors who have given their
knowledge and time for this project. But without all children and their
educators in group care settings across the world this book would not have
been realized. Thanks to all of you!
Finally, this book is now delivered to readers, researchers, and educa-
tors. Hopefully, you will be inspired to continue the discussion and the
development of knowledge about infants’ and toddlers’ participatory learn-
ing in early childhood programs.

Donna Berthelsen, Jo Brownlee and Eva Johansson

July 2008
1 Participatory Learning
Issues for Research and Practice
Donna Berthelsen

A goal of this book is to present research about participatory learning

with very young children in group care settings, as well as to understand,
through that research, how participatory learning can be understood
across cultures. The purpose of this particular chapter is to review key
issues that inform this area of research. Across cultures, within the broad
sociocultural tradition focused on children’s learning, there is no clear
set of theoretical principles nor a related set of methodologies associated
with such research. The chapters in this book provide a range of studies
informed by different theoretical perspectives in the sociocultural tradi-
tion and different research methodologies. While the chapters represent
diverse standpoints, there is a common view that individuals and their
contexts are intricately linked and that children’s learning is a socially
and culturally mediated process.
The diversity of views presented in this book indicates that, across cul-
tures, there are different understandings about children’s participatory
learning and early childhood practice. While we recognize that there will
be social and cultural diversity in the ideas that will inform practice with
young children in group care settings, a case for cross-cultural research
can also be made. Researchers and practitioners in early childhood educa-
tion learn from looking across cultures to understand both the manner in
which others’ understand their world as well as to surface our own taken-
for-granted assumptions about young children. When beliefs and practices
from other cultures and national contexts are considered then one’s own
assumptions become more apparent.
Assumptions about how social and cultural experiences influence young
children’s learning have been largely ignored in the early childhood educa-
tion literature until quite recently. Theory stemming from Euro-American
academic research presented a view that understanding of young children’s
development could be generalized across societies. A shift in emphasis that
has given more attention to culture and social contexts has replaced the pre-
vious reliance on normative theories. These theories described child devel-
opment “as occurring in linear and universal stages” and had informed
2 Donna Berthelsen
early childhood education practice for several decades (Lee & Johnson,
2007, p. 234). Sociocultural perspectives have now become prominent
drawing particularly on the theories of Vygotsky (1978, 1986) and Rogoff
(1990, 2003). In these theories, culture becomes the most important system
in which human development occurs. Children participate within their cul-
tural context and, from an early age, they are agents of their own learning
and active makers of meaning.
In a number of chapters in this book, there is a focus on relationships
as an important learning context. Children’s learning is influenced by their
relationships with others, both peers and adults, as well as through the rela-
tionships between adults within children’s life spheres. Relationships are
formed when two partners accumulate a history of interactions that bring
expectancies from past experiences into their future interactions with each
other. The issue for adults working with young children is to understand
that these relationships are contexts for learning through which the child
can be afforded agency and power. Learning is influenced by the child’s
interest in, and responsiveness to, the behavior and feelings of others in
that context. Learning is sustained by social and affective engagement with
others. Through communication and collaboration in relationships, learn-
ing occurs because activities have embedded meanings about values and
traditions in that cultural context (Rogoff, 2003; Rogoff, Paradise, Arauz,
Correa-Chavez, & Angelillo, 2004).
A major focus in this book is the experiences of children aged less than
three years who participate in group care settings. In theory and research
in early education, there has been less focus on participatory learning and
democratic approaches to practice with very young children. However, many
young children across national contexts now participate in group programs
from a very early age. Their experiences deserve greater attention. Increasing
evidence indicates the importance of this period to children’s development and
learning (National Scientific Council on the Developing Child, 2004). Across
the chapters in this book, the experiences of very young children in group
settings are explored. Those settings are variously termed, across national
contexts, child care, nursery, kindergarten, or preschool. In the following
sections of this chapter, four themes are explored. These sections focus on
culture and context and young children’s learning; sociocultural theorizing
and learning; participation as a right; and learning as participation.

CULTURE, CONTEXT AND YOUNG CHILDREN’S LEARNING

Culture can be understood as the complex set of separable but related

contextual factors experienced by a social group over time. Culture is not
a static entity but a dynamic system that is constantly in the process of
reconstruction. It is “history in the present” (Cole, 2005a, p. 3). Culture
can also be understood in a more abstract way as the systems of shared
 Participatory Learning 3
meanings transmitted within and across generations through social inter-
action (Miller, 1999). Culture as a concept is more complex than merely
considering it as an entity with clear-cut boundaries, such as nationality
and ethnicity, because essentially these are merely social addresses or iden-
tity categories that underestimate the complexity in the meaning of culture
(Rogoff, 2003).
Understanding the conceptual complexity in the idea of culture is a nec-
essary precondition in exploring how individuals learn from a sociocul-
tural perspective (Pein & Hodkinson, 2007). The manner in which culture
is often discussed implies some hierarchical properties. There is a compli-
cated and intertwined relationship between the culture of any specific con-
text (e.g., a child care center) and the culture at large. There is the culture
that prevails and is created within a child care classroom, within the child
care center, and within the organization that manages that center. There
is also culture in the wider sense that influences the manner in which any
local, specific practice may be, in one way or another, an expression of
the culture at large; although it must be recognized that this is a dialecti-
cal and reciprocal process since individuals also have an influence on the
expression of the wider culture. The larger idea of culture may refer to
any number of dimensions. It can be the traditions in a way of life or the
beliefs and practices of a group. However, it can also be used, as formerly
described, to refer to institutions and to smaller units of social space within
those institutions. Research that takes account of culture must inevitably
address the complicated interplay between the wider cultural context and
the local context of practice.
Significant cultural meanings are embedded and constructed in the
everyday settings in which children participate. To understand the expe-
riences of children, a close look at these contexts that are most proximal
to children’s lives is important. Research on children’s learning is most
often conducted within these proximal contexts to examine the practices
that constrain or support children’s agency and influence. The cultural
practices within those proximal contexts, such as a child’s early education
program, are likely to instantiate cultural themes from both the insti-
tutional culture in which the program may be embedded as well as the
wider culture. Thus, local practices within the social and physical space
of the program are likely to be characterized by common themes and
values from the broader cultural context expressed in a variety of ways
to children through activities and interactions. For example, children’s
independence may be highly valued in the wider culture and practices
within a child care program may reflect that theme. Thus, the child learns
valued behaviors associated with independence. In another cultural con-
text, interdependence may be more strongly emphasized and practices to
learn about cooperation will be embedded in the everyday experiences
of the children. Children’s learning is therefore framed by such themes
which are valued in the wider culture and, consequently, will be expressed
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