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 Teaching Social Studies to
English Language Learners

Today’s classrooms increasingly include students for whom English is not a first language. Teaching
Social Studies to English Language Learners provides readers with a comprehensive understanding
of both the challenges that face English language learners (ELLs) and ways in which educators
might address them in the social studies classroom. The authors offer context-specific strategies
for the full range of the social studies curriculum, including geography, U.S. history, world history,
economics, and government. These practical instructional strategies will effectively engage learn-
ers and can be incorporated as a regular part of instruction in any classroom. An annotated list of
web and print resources completes the volume, making this a valuable reference for social studies
teachers to meet the challenges of including all learners in effective instruction.

Special Features:

ƒƒ “Teaching Tips” offer specific methods of creating and modifying lesson plans to be inclusive
of ELLs
ƒƒ Engaging vignettes vividly illustrate real-life interactions of teachers and ELLs in the
classroom
ƒƒ Graphs, tables, and illustrations provide additional access points to the text in clear,
meaningful ways

Bárbara C. Cruz is Professor of Social Science Education in the Department of Secondary

Education at the University of South Florida.

Stephen J. Thornton is Professor of Social Science Education and Chair of the Department of
Secondary Education at the University of South Florida.
Teaching English Language Learners Across the Curriculum
Series Editors: Tony Erben, Bárbara C. Cruz, Stephen J. Thornton

Teaching Mathematics to English Language Learners

Gladis Kersaint, Denisse R. Thompson, Mariana Petkova

Teaching English Language Learners in Career and Technical Education

Programs
Victor M. Hernández-Gantes and William Blank

Teaching English Language Learners through Technology

Tony Erben, Ruth Ban, Martha Castañeda

Teaching Social Studies to English Language Learners

Bárbara C. Cruz and Stephen J. Thornton
 Teaching Social Studies to
English Language Learners

Bárbara C. Cruz and Stephen J. Thornton

First published 2009
by Routledge
270 Madison Ave, New York, NY 10016
Simultaneously published in the UK
by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2008.
“To purchase your own copy of this or any of Taylor & Francis or Routledge’s
collection of thousands of eBooks please go to www.eBookstore.tandf.co.uk.”

© 2009 Taylor and Francis

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised
in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or here-
after invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage
or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers.
Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered
trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to
infringe.
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
Cruz, Bárbara.
Teaching social studies to English language learners/Barbara C. Cruz and Stephen
J. Thornton.
p. cm. — (Teaching English language learners across the curriculum)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
1. Social sciences—Study and teaching—United States. 2. English language—
Study and teaching—Foreign speakers. 3. Curriculum planning—United States.
I. Thornton, Stephen J. II. Title.
H62.5.U5C78 2008
300.71’273—dc22
2008001569
ISBN 0-203-89434-0 Master e-book ISBN

ISBN 10: 0-415-95760-5 (hbk)

ISBN 10: 0-415-95761-3 (pbk)
ISBN 10: 0-203-89434-0 (ebk)

ISBN 13: 978-0-415-95760-1 (hbk)

ISBN 13: 978-0-415-95761-8 (pbk)
ISBN 13: 978-0-203-89434-7 (ebk)
 We dedicate this book to
James Agarpao and Kevin A. Yelvington,
for their support and encouragement throughout the process.
 Contents

List of Figures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xi
List of Tables. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiii
Series Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xv
Acknowledgements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xvii
Introduction������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������1

Part 1 — Your English Language Learner Tony Erben�������������������������������������������������������������������������5

1.1 — Orientation��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������7

1.2 — The Process of English Language Learning and What to Expect����������������������������������������������9

Principle 1: Give ELLs Many Opportunities to Read, to Write, to Listen to, and
to Discuss Oral and Written English Texts Expressed in a Variety of Ways ���������������������������������� 10
Principle 2: Draw Attention to Patterns of English Language Structure ���������������������������������������� 11
Principle 3: Give ELLs Classroom Time to Use their English Productively������������������������������������ 12
Principle 4: Give ELLs Opportunities to Notice their Errors and to Correct their English���������� 12
Principle 5: Construct Activities that Maximize Opportunities for ELLs to
Interact with Others in English ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 14

1.3 — Deciding on the Best ESOL Program ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������17

viii   Contents

1.4 — Teaching for English Language Development��������������������������������������������������������������������������22

1.5 — Not All ELLs are the Same ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������26

Stages of Cultural Adjustment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Cultural Practices at School . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

1.6 — Culturally Responsive Pedagogy ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������31

1.7 — Not All Parents are the Same: Home–School Communication������������������������������������������������34

Ideas: On Fostering Access. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Ideas: On Fostering Approachability. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Ideas: On Achieving Good Follow-Through . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

1.8 — English Language Learners with Special Needs ��������������������������������������������������������������������37

Part 2 — Principles of Social Studies Teaching and Learning����������������������������������������������������������41

2.1 — Principles of Social Studies Teaching and Learning����������������������������������������������������������������43

Elements of an Instructional Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

2.2 — How Instruction Unfolds����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������46

2.3 — Social Studies-Focused ESOL Research����������������������������������������������������������������������������������48

Classroom Environment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Pedagogical Orientation and Practice. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Culturally Sensitive Pedagogy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
General Approaches. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Language Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Sheltered Instruction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Individualized Instruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Discussion and Questioning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Discovery and Exploration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Cooperative Learning Skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

2.4 — Enacting the Social Studies Curriculum����������������������������������������������������������������������������������55

The Textbook . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Graphic Organizers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Role Playing and Simulations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Visual Resources. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Gifted ELL Students. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

Part 3 — Teaching Social Studies����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������63

3.1 — Introduction ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������65

 Contents   ix

3.2 — Geography ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������70

Kinesthetic Learning and Stratified Questioning: The Concept of Scale (Levels 1, 2, 3, & 4)������ 72
Kinesthetic Learning and Visual Aids: Africa: Physical Geography and Population
Distribution (Levels 3 & 4). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
K–W–L–H, Visual Aids, Guided Imagery, and Stratified Questioning: Women’s Work
in Southern India (Levels 2, 3, & 4). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Problem Solving, Visual Aids, and Stratified Questioning: Adaptation of
the Environment: The Case of Switzerland (Levels 1, 2, 3, & 4) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Selected Internet Sites for Teaching Geography. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82

3.3 — United States History��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������83

Visual Aids, Stratified Questioning: Lewis and Clark Expedition (Levels 1, 2, 3, & 4) . . . . . . . . . 85
Visual Aids, Cartography, and Critical Thinking: Lewis and Clark Activity 2:
Cartography (Levels 3 & 4). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
Dioramas, Kinesthetic Learning, and Cooperative Learning: Lewis and Clark Extension
Activity: Creating a Diorama (Levels 1, 2, 3, & 4). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
Cooperative Learning, Peer Teaching, and Primary Documents: Lewis and
Clark Activity 3: Primary Documents using Cooperative Learning (Levels 3 & 4). . . . . . . . . . . . 88
Modified Text, Visual Aids, Picture Books, Stratified Questioning, and Music:
Women in WWII (Levels 1, 2, 3, & 4). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
Eisenhower’s Military–Industrial Complex Speech, 1961: Simplifying Text and
Role-Playing (Levels 3 & 4). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
Selected Resources for Teaching U.S. History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103

3.4 — World History ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������106

Culturally Sensitive Pedagogy, Visual Aids, Stratified Questioning, and Research
Skills: World Origins of Our Class (Levels 1, 2, 3, & 4) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
Realia, Word Wall, and Visual Aids: The Renaissance (Levels 1, 2, 3, & 4). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
Visual Aids and Primary Source Documents: Cultural Encounter and Exploration
(Levels 3 & 4) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
Visual Aids, Stratified Questioning, and Guided Discussion: The Industrial Revolution:
The Cases of Great Britain and Japan (Levels 1, 2, 3, & 4). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
Visual Aids, Role Playing, Guided Reading, and Stratified Questioning: Japanese
Americans During WWII (Levels 1, 2, 3, & 4). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
Role Playing and Cooperative Learning: Factory Life in the Twentieth Century
(Levels 2, 3, & 4). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
Selected Resources for Teaching World History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135

3.5 — Government and Civics����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������137

Peer Teaching and Visual Aids: Political Cartoons (Levels 2, 3, & 4). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
Teaching with Primary Sources (Levels 2, 3, & 4). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
Using Bilingual Dictionaries and Graphic Organizers: Voting Rights (Levels 3 & 4) . . . . . . . . . 141
Language Development through Simplifying Complex Text and Using Visual Aids:
Women’s Suffrage (Levels 3 & 4) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
Cooperative Learning, Computer Technology, and Alternative Assessments:
Political Bumper Stickers (Levels 1, 2, 3, & 4). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
Visual Aids and Graphic Organizers: Executive Powers (Levels 1, 2, 3, & 4) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
Selected Resources for Teaching Government and Civics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
x   Contents

3.6 — Economics ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������154

Graphic Organizers and Role-Playing: “Half a Loaf is Better than None”:
International Trade and Development (Levels 3 & 4). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
Visual Aids, Realia, Total Physical Response, and Stratified Questioning Strategy:
Goods and Services (Levels 1, 2, 3, & 4). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
Visual Aids and Cooperative Learning: The Economic Concept of
Scarcity (Levels 2, 3, & 4) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
Cooperative Learning: Setting Priorities and Making Choices: A Lesson in
Personal Budgeting (Levels 3 & 4). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
Graphic Organizers and Cooperative Learning: Consumer Credit
and Debt (Levels 2, 3, & 4). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
Visual Aids and Stratified Questioning Strategy:
Advertising (Levels 1, 2, 3, & 4). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
Selected Internet Sites for Teaching Economics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166

3.7 — Anthropology, Sociology, and Psychology ����������������������������������������������������������������������������168

Cooperative Learning and Visual Aids: Mental Cartography (Levels 1, 2, 3, & 4). . . . . . . . . . . . 169
Simplifying Complex Language: Cultural Anthropology: Seeing Through Others’
Eyes (Levels 3 & 4). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
Alternative Assessments: Sociology: Surveys and Opinion Polls (Levels 2, 3, & 4). . . . . . . . . . . 171
Visual Aids and Graphic Organizers: Psychology: Identity Formation (Levels 1, 2, 3, & 4). . . . 173
Resources for Teaching Sociology, Anthropology, and Psychology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175

3.8 — Controversial Issues in the Social Studies Classroom����������������������������������������������������������177

Cooperative Learning, Kinesthetic Activities, and Stratified Questioning Strategy:
The Paper Chase (Levels 1, 2, 3, & 4). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
Using Technology, Audio-Visual Materials, and Cooperative Learning: Controversial
Issues at Home and Abroad (Levels 2, 3, & 4). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
Political Cartoons, Values Clarification, and Role Playing: Immigration: Whom Should
We Allow In? (Levels 1, 2, 3, & 4) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
Kinesthetic Learning and Critical Thinking: Taking a Stand (Levels 2, 3, & 4). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
Cooperative Learning, Critical Thinking, and Research Skills: The Dead–Red Sea Canal
(Levels 3 & 4) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
Selected Resources for Teaching Controversial Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190

Resources����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������192
Internet Resources for Teachers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
Print and Associated Resources for Teachers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
Resources for Students. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
Glossary��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������211
Notes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
Index������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������225
 Figures

2.1. Standard format for responding to readings. ����������������������������������������������������������������������������60

3.1.  How big is Africa?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
3.2. Map of Switzerland. ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������80
3.3. The United States, showing extent of European settlement in 1790. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
3.4. “I’m proud . . . my husband wants me to do my part.”��������������������������������������������������������������91
3.5.  “Women in the war—We can’t win without them.”.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
3.6. The poster of “Rosie” was created for Westinghouse by J. Howard Miller in 1942.. . . . . . . . . . 92
3.7. “Women Learn ‘War Work’ .”������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������94
3.8. “Long Beach Plant, Douglas Aircraft.”. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
3.9. The Parthenon, Athens�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������112
3.10. Notre Dame Cathedral, Paris. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
3.11. St. Peter’s Basilica, Rome. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
3.12.  Portuguese discoveries in Africa, 1340–1498. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
3.13.  Christ Church and Coal Staith, Leeds, 1829.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
3.14.  Textile industries, George Spill & Co., 1855. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
3.15. Japanese internment poster. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
3.16. Relocation centers map. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
xii   Figures

3.17.  The apotheosis of suffrage.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147

3.18.  Men looking in the window of the National Anti-Suffrage Association
headquarters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
3.19.  Women’s Suffrage Headquarters, Cleveland, Ohio.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
3.20.  U.S. presidency brainstorm. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
3.21.  Caribbean web activity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
 Tables

1.1.  Generalized patterns of ESOL development stages. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

1.2.  Types of ESOL programs in the United States. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.3.  Cummins’ Quadrants. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
3.1.  Four levels of speech emergence����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������67
3.2.  Lesson plan with ELL modifications ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������68
 Series
Introduction

No educational issue has proven more controversial than how to teach linguistically diverse stu-
dents. Intertwined issues of ethnic and cultural differences are often compounded. What is more,
at the time of writing, December 2007, how immigrants and their heritages ought to fit with the
dominant culture is the subject of rancorous debate in the United States and a number of other
nations.
However thorny these issues may be to some, both legally and ethically, schools need to accom-
modate the millions of English language learners (ELLs) who need to be educated. Although the
number of ELLs in the United States has burgeoned in recent decades, school programs generally
remain organized via traditional subjects, which are delivered in English. Many ELLs are insuf-
ficiently fluent in academic English, however, to succeed in these programs. Since policymakers
have increasingly insisted that ELLs, regardless of their fluency in English, be mainstreamed into
standard courses with all other students, both classroom enactment of the curriculum and teacher
education need considerable rethinking.
Language scholars have generally taken the lead in this rethinking. As is evident from Part 1
of the volumes in this series, language scholars have developed a substantial body of research to
inform the mainstreaming of ELLs. The primary interest of these language scholars, however, is
almost by definition the processes and principles of second language acquisition. Until recently,
subject matter has typically been a secondary consideration, used to illustrate language concerns.
Perhaps not surprisingly, content-area teachers sometimes have seen this as reducing their sub-
jects to little more than isolated bits of information, such as a list of explorers and dates in history
or sundry geological formations in science.
In contrast, secondary school teachers see their charge as effectively conveying a principled
understanding of, and interest in, a subject. They look for relationships, seek to develop concepts,
search for powerful examples and analogies, and try to explicate principles. By the same token,
xvi   Teaching Social Studies to English Language Learners

they strive to make meaningful connections among the subject matter, students’ experience, and
life outside of school. In our observations, teacher education programs bifurcate courses on con-
tent-area methods and (if there are any) courses designed to instill principles of teaching ELLs.
One result of this bifurcation seems to be that prospective and in-service teachers are daunted by
the challenge of using language principles to inform their teaching of subject matter.
For example, Gloria Ladson-Billings (2001) has experimented with how to prepare new teach-
ers for diverse classrooms through a teacher education program focused on “diversity, equity,
and social justice” (p. xiii). Teachers in her program are expected, for instance, to confront rather
than become resigned to low academic expectations for children in urban schools. From Ladson-
Billings’s perspective, “no matter what else the schools find themselves doing, promoting students’
academic achievement is among their primary functions” (p. 56).
The authors in this series extend this perspective to teaching ELLs in the content areas. For
example, how might ELLs be included in a literature lesson on Hardy’s use of landscape imagery
in The Mayor of Casterbridge, or an economics lesson on the principle of comparative advantage,
or a biology lesson on the ecosystem of a pond? Such topics, experienced educators quickly recog-
nize, are often difficult for native speakers of English. How can teachers break down these subjects
into topics in a way that is educationally significant for ELLs?
The purpose of this series is to assist current and prospective educators to plan and implement
lessons that do justice to the goals of the curriculum and make sense to and interest ELLs. If the
needs of diverse learners are to be met, Ladson-Billings (2001) underscores that innovation is
demanded, not that teachers merely pine for how things once were. The most obvious innovation
in this series is to bring language scholars and specialists in the methods of teaching particular
school subjects together. Although this approach is scarcely unique, it remains relatively uncom-
mon. Combining the two groups brings more to addressing the problems of instruction than
could be obtained by the two groups working separately. Even so, these volumes hardly tell the
reader “everything there is to know” about the problems addressed. But we do know that our
teacher education students report that even modest training to teach ELLs can make a significant
difference in the classroom. We hope this series extends those successes to all the content areas
of the curriculum.
 Acknowledgements

The authors would like to acknowledge the efforts and contributions of four individuals who
helped bring this project to fruition:

ƒƒ Caroline Parrish, whose research assistance helped us in the initial stages of writing and who
generously allowed us to modify and use two lesson plans she created for ELLs;
ƒƒ Clay Kelsey, who assisted us in formatting visuals for the book;
ƒƒ Dr. Roy Winkelman, who kindly shared his historical map collection with us;
ƒƒ Dr. Phil Smith, who forwarded valuable information and cutting-edge research and provided
feedback on some of our work.
 Introduction

Thanh had been in the United States for only a week when he entered my 10th grade
World History classroom. Even though he spoke no English, I could tell immediately that
he was an especially intelligent youngster. As a first-year teacher, however, I did not have
the experience, knowledge, or skills to fully appreciate his aptitude or help him develop his
language skills.
Freshly out of an undergraduate teacher preparation program, I had Thanh sit along the
side of the class, towards the back, remembering all I had been told about adolescents—
especially “different” ones—wanting to be inconspicuous. Much to my surprise, Thanh
came up to me at the end of class after a couple of class sessions and pointed to a seat in
the front row. As I still didn’t comprehend what he was asking, he sat himself down, clearly
indicating that that was where he wanted to be. I showed him my seating chart, erased his
name from the side/back seat, and rewrote it in the empty space in the front row. He smiled
broadly, thanking me with his beaming face.
His Vietnamese–English dictionary was Thanh’s constant companion; he repeatedly
consulted it throughout the class. He often motioned me to write out words I said on the
board. He asked for additional readings. He checked out films from the school library on
the topics we were studying. In short, he intuitively knew what I should have been doing as
his teacher, but wasn’t.
By the end of the year Thanh was constructing and stringing together simple sentences,
completing all homework as well as or better than his peers, and producing social studies
projects that reflected not only his high academic ability but also his particular cultural
perspectives on a number of issues. Although I learned much from Thanh about Vietnam
that year, two things are clear to me as I reflect on my experience that first year of teaching:
that I certainly learned more from Thanh than he did from me, and that Thanh—and other
English language learners like him—often learn in spite of teachers, not always because
of them. I seemed to embody Clair’s (1995) observation that, teachers are, by and large,
“learning to educate these students on the job” (p. 194).
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