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 g

Psychology of Language
FIFTH EDITION

DAVID W. CARROLL
University of Wisconsin---Superior
 Psychology of Language, Fifth Edition
David W. Carroll

Executive Editor: Erik Evans Permissions Editor: Roberta Broyer

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# 2008, 2004 Thomson Wadsworth, a part of Thomson Higher Education

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under license. USA

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. No part of this work For more information about our products, contact us at:
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 g
For my mother, Mary M. Carroll,
and in memory of my father, Patrick E. Carroll

DAVID W. CARROLL received a B.A. in psychology

and philosophy from the University of California
at Davis (1972) and an M.A. (1973) and Ph.D.
(1976) in experimental and developmental psy-
chology from Michigan State University. He has
taught at the University of Wisconsin–Superior
since 1976. He is currently a Professor of Psychol-
ogy and previously served as chair of the psychol-
ogy program. Dr. Carroll teaches courses in introductory psychology, psychology
of language, cognitive psychology, and child development, and he conducts
research on discourse comprehension, critical thinking, and the teaching of psy-
chology. He is a member of the Society for Text and Discourse, the Division of
Experimental Psychology, the American Psychological Society, the Society for
General Psychology, and the Society for Teaching of Psychology.
 g

Brief Contents

P R E FA C E xvi

PA R T I General Issues 1
1 Introduction: Themes of Psycholinguistics 2
2 Linguistic Principles 17
3 Psychological Mechanisms 45

PA R T II Language Comprehension 67
4 Perception of Language 68

5 The Internal Lexicon 102

6 Sentence Comprehension and Memory 130
7 Discourse Comprehension and Memory 157

PA R T III Language Production and Conversational

Interaction 191
8 Production of Speech and Language 192

9 Conversational Interaction 224

 BRIEF CONTENTS v

PA R T IV Language Acquisition 249

10 Early Language Acquisition 250
11 Later Language Acquisition 283

12 Processes of Language Acquisition 324

PA R T V Language in Perspective 353

13 Biological Foundations of Language 354
14 Language, Culture, and Cognition 394

GLOSSARY 421
REFERENCES 435
P H O T O C R E D I T S 476
A U T H O R I N D E X 477
SUBJECT INDEX 485
 g

Contents

P R E FA C E xvi

PA R T I General Issues 1

1 Introduction: Themes of Psycholinguistics 2

Introduction 3
The Scope of Psycholinguistics 4
Language Processes and Linguistic Knowledge 4
Four Language Examples 5
Summary 8
The Historical Context 8
Early Psycholinguistics 9
Behaviorism and Verbal Behavior 10
Later Psycholinguistics 11
Current Directions 14
Summary 15
Review Questions 15
Thought Questions 16
 CONTENTS vii

2 Linguistic Principles 17
Introduction 18
Basic Grammatical Concepts 18
Duality of Patterning 20
Morphology 22
Phrase Structure 23
Linguistic Productivity 25
Summary 26
Insights from Sign Language 27
Differences Between Signed and Spoken Languages 27
Similarities Between Signed and Spoken Languages 28
Significance of Sign Language 32
Summary 33
Transformational Grammar 33
Language and Grammar 33
Deep and Surface Structure 34
Transformational Rules 35
Summary 37
Issues in Grammatical Theory 37
Psychological Reality of Grammar 37
The Centrality of Syntax 39
Is Language Innate? 42
Summary 43
Review Questions 43
Thought Questions 44

3 Psychological Mechanisms 45
Introduction 46
The Information-Processing System 47
Working Memory 47
Long-Term Memory 50
Relevance for Language Processing 53
Summary 53
Central Issues in Language Processing 54
Serial and Parallel Processing 54
Top-Down and Bottom-Up Processes 56
viii CONTENTS

Automatic and Controlled Processes 57

Modularity 57
An Example of Language Processing 58
Summary 59
Development of the Processing System 60
Development of Working Memory 60
Development of Long-Term Memory 61
Summary 65
Review Questions 65
Thought Questions 65

PA R T II Language Comprehension 67

4 Perception of Language 68
Introduction 69
The Structure of Speech 69
Prosodic Factors 70
Articulatory Phonetics 71
Acoustic Phonetics 74
Summary 78
Perception of Isolated Speech Segments 78
Levels of Speech Processing 78
Speech as a Modular System 78
The Motor Theory of Speech Perception 83
Summary 85
Perception of Continuous Speech 85
Prosodic Factors in Speech Recognition 85
Semantic and Syntactic Factors in Speech Perception 87
The TRACE Model of Speech Perception 89
Summary 90
Perception of Written Language 91
Different Writing Systems 91
Levels of Written Language Processing 92
Eye Movements During Reading 93
Perception of Letters in Isolation 95
Perception of Letters in Word Context 96
Two Models of Reading 98
Summary 100
 CONTENTS ix

Review Questions 101

Thought Questions 101

5 The Internal Lexicon 102

Introduction 103
Dimensions of Word Knowledge 104
Phonological Knowledge 104
Syntactic Knowledge 105
Morphological Knowledge 105
Semantic Knowledge 106
Summary 110
Organization of the Internal Lexicon 110
The Concept of a Semantic Network 110
Hierarchical Network Models 111
Spreading Activation Models 115
Summary 118
Lexical Access 118
Models of Lexical Access 118
Variables That Influence Lexical Access 120
Appraising Models of Lexical Access 127
Summary 128
Review Questions 128
Thought Questions 129

6 Sentence Comprehension and Memory 130

Introduction 131
Immediate Processing of Sentences 132
Parsing 132
Parsing Strategies 134
Modular Versus Interactive Models 135
Working Memory and Comprehension 137
Incomplete or Inaccurate Representations 139
Summary 140
Comprehending Figurative Language 141
Types of Figurative Language 141
Studies of Figurative Language Comprehension 144
Summary 150
x CONTENTS

Memory for Sentences 150

Memory for Meaning Versus Surface Form 150
Inferences and Sentence Memory 153
Propositions and Sentence Memory 154
Summary 155
Review Questions 156
Thought Questions 156

7 Discourse Comprehension and Memory 157

Introduction 158
Comprehension of Discourse 158
Local and Global Discourse Structure 158
Cohesion 160
Strategies Used to Establish Coherence 162
Role of Working Memory 165
Summary 167
Memory for Discourse 167
Surface Representations 168
Propositional Representations 168
Situational Models 172
Simultaneous Investigations of All Three Levels 174
Summary 176
Schemata and Discourse Processing 176
Schemata 176
Genres 178
Narrative Discourse Processing 179
Inaccessibility of Knowledge 183
Summary 184
Educational Implications 185
Actively Processing Discourse 186
Connecting Propositions in Discourse 187
Identifying the Main Points 187
Building Global Structures 188
Tailoring Comprehension Activities to Tests 188
Summary 189
Review Questions 189
Thought Questions 190
 CONTENTS xi

PA R T III Language Production

and Conversational Interaction 191

8 Production of Speech and Language 192

Introduction 193
Slips of the Tongue 194
Types of Speech Errors 194
Common Properties of Speech Errors 195
Explanations of Speech Errors 196
Summary 197
Formulating Linguistic Plans 198
Serial Models of Linguistic Planning 198
Editing Processes 201
Parallel Models of Linguistic Planning 204
Summary 206
Implementing Linguistic Plans 207
Articulating 207
Self-Monitoring 211
Summary 216
Insights from Sign Language 216
Slips of the Hand 217
Production Rates 221
Summary 222
Review Questions 222
Thought Questions 223

9 Conversational Interaction 224

Introduction 225
The Structure of Conversation 226
Opening Conversations 227
Closing Conversations 228
Taking Turns 229
Negotiating Topics of Conversation 230
Identifying Participants and Nonparticipants 233
Summary 234
Conversational Participants 234
Friends and Acquaintances 235
xii CONTENTS

Gender Differences in Conversation 237

Summary 241
Conversational Settings 241
Personal and Institutional Settings 241
Therapeutic Discourse 242
Other Forms of Institutional Discourse 246
Summary 247
Review Questions 247
Thought Questions 248

PA R T IV Language Acquisition 249

10 Early Language Acquisition 250

Introduction 251
Prelinguistic Communication 252
The Social Context of Preverbal Infants 252
Prelinguistic Gestures 253
Summary 257
Early Phonology 257
The Development of Speech Perception 258
The Development of Speech Production 262
Summary 265
One Word at a Time 265
Lexical Development 266
Holophrases 269
Summary 271
Early Grammar 271
Measures of Syntactic Growth 272
Emergence of Grammatical Categories 273
Comprehension and Production 276
Individual Differences 276
Summary 278
Acquisition of Sign Language 278
Summary 281
Review Questions 281
Thought Questions 282
 CONTENTS xiii

11 Later Language Acquisition 283

Introduction 284
Later Grammar 286
Acquisition of Morphology 286
Later Syntactic Development 290
Cross-Linguistic Differences in Later Grammar 294
Summary 296
Metalinguistics and Discourse 296
The Emergence of Linguistic Awareness 296
Discourse Processes in Children 298
Summary 303
Language in the School 304
Communicating in the Classroom 304
Reading and Language Development 306
Summary 309
Bilingualism and Second-Language Acquisition 310
Contexts of Childhood Bilingualism 310
Bilingual First-Language Acquisition 311
Second-Language Acquisition 315
Cognitive Consequences of Bilingualism 318
Summary 321
Review Questions 322
Thought Questions 322

12 Processes of Language Acquisition 324

Introduction 325
The Linguistic Environment 326
Feral and Isolated Children 326
The Critical Period Hypothesis 329
Motherese 331
Summary 334
Cognitive Processes 334
Operating Principles 335
Sensorimotor Schemata 336
Cognitive Constraints 337
Impairments of Language and Cognition 339
Summary 340
xiv CONTENTS

Innate Mechanisms 341

The Language Bioprogram Hypothesis 341
Parameter Setting 344
The Issue of Negative Evidence 346
Objections to Innate Mechanisms 348
Summary 350
Review Questions 351
Thought Questions 351

PA R T V Language in Perspective 353

13 Biological Foundations of Language 354

Introduction 355
Brain Mechanisms and Language 356
Clinical Descriptions of Aphasia 356
Geschwind’s Model of Language Processing 362
Experimental Studies of Aphasia 363
Implications for Understanding Normal Language Processing 366
Summary 367
Lateralization of Language Processes 367
Split-Brain Research 368
Lateralization in Normal Brains 371
Contributions of the Right Hemisphere 374
Development of Lateralization 375
Lateralization in Other Species 378
Summary 379
Evolution of Language 379
Communication in Present-Day Primates 381
Teaching Language to Nonhuman Primates 382
The Continuity Debate 386
Possible Evolutionary Sequences 388
Summary 392
Review Questions 392
Thought Questions 393

14 Language, Culture, and Cognition 394

Introduction 395
 CONTENTS xv

The Whorf Hypothesis 395

Linguistic Determinism and Relativity 396
Some Whorfian Examples 396
Summary 400
Lexical Influences on Cognition 400
Testing the Whorf Hypothesis 400
Color Terms 401
Number Terms 404
Object Terms 406
Spatial Terms 406
Summary 411
Grammatical Influences on Cognition 411
Studies of the Subjunctive 411
Grammatical Marking of Form 414
Grammatical Marking of Objects and Substances 415
Grammatical Marking of Gender 417
Final Observations 419
Summary 419
Review Questions 419
Thought Questions 420

GLOSSARY 421
R E F E R E N C E S 435
P H O T O C R E D I T S 476
AUTHOR INDEX 477
SUBJECT INDEX 485
 g

Preface

Some of the most fascinating questions about human behavior deal with language.
Are we born with a propensity for acquiring language, or is this a skill that is nur-
tured by one’s environment? What causes slips of the tongue? How does brain
damage influence language functioning? Do individuals who speak different lan-
guages think differently? To pursue answers to these and many other questions, we
must cut across some of the traditional boundaries of psychology. We will need to
study children as well as adults and examine language both in the laboratory and
in natural settings. Ultimately, as we pull all of these different strands together, we
come to appreciate language as a whole and the central role it plays in human
affairs.
It has been over 20 years since the first edition of this book was published.
However, my goals for the book remain essentially the same. I want to present
the principles of psycholinguistics in a manner that is accessible to undergraduates.
Although the field can be technical at times, when presented clearly, it can be very
engaging to students. In addition, I want to discuss fundamental psycholinguistic
issues in a balanced way. I have presented controversial issues from a variety of per-
spectives and invited the reader to think through the competing claims.
The organization of the book is similar to earlier editions. Part 1 (General
Issues) contains three chapters. Chapter 1 describes the scope of psycholinguistics
along with a short history of the field. Chapter 2 discusses basic grammatical con-
cepts such as phonemes, distinctive features, and morphology. The chapter also
includes the grammatical features of American Sign Language, a topic that is dis-
cussed throughout the book. The chapter closes with a preliminary discussion of
some controversial issues in linguistic theory, such as the psychological reality
of grammar and whether language is innate. Chapter 3 focuses on basic concepts
of information processing and how they may apply to language. The overriding
goal of Part 1 is to introduce the notion of a cognitive approach to language pro-
cesses, an approach that emphasizes the interrelationships among language, memory,
and cognition.
 PREFACE xvii

This approach is then applied to various aspects of language processing. Part 2

(Language Comprehension) includes chapters on perception, the lexicon, sen-
tence processing, and discourse processing. Chapter 4 discusses speech perception
and reading, including research on nonalphabetic orthographies. Chapter 5
presents current knowledge on the organization of the internal lexicon, and it
examines how we access words during comprehension. Chapter 6 discusses sen-
tence comprehension, including parsing, figurative language, and memory for
sentences. Chapter 7 emphasizes levels of discourse representation and how
they function individually as well as in concert with one another.
Part 3 (Language Production and Conversational Interaction) contains one
chapter on language production and one on conversation. Chapter 8 discusses
speech errors and various explanations for them, as well as the process of imple-
menting speech plans. Chapter 9 describes the tasks involved in conversational
interaction and discusses how interaction varies with different conversational set-
tings and participants.
Part 4 (Language Acquisition) contains three chapters. Chapter 10 discusses
infants’ use of gestures prior to language and the child’s initial steps in language
acquisition, including first words and the emerging ability to form multiword
utterances. Chapter 11 discusses language acquisition in the late preschool
and school years, with an emphasis on metalinguistic awareness and reading.
Chapter 11 also considers bilingualism and second-language acquisition in chil-
dren. Chapter 12 examines and appraises different theories of language
acquisition.
Finally, Part 5 (Language in Perspective) includes Chapter 13 on biological
foundations and Chapter 14 on language, culture, and cognition, with particular
emphasis on the Whorf hypothesis. These last two chapters are somewhat broader
in scope than most of the earlier ones and help put basic psycholinguistic processes
(comprehension, production, and acquisition of language) into biological and cul-
tural perspective.
For those familiar with earlier editions of the book, there are a number of
changes in this edition. Chapter 3 is completely rewritten, reflecting contempo-
rary research in working memory and episodic memory, and their relevance for
language processing. Chapter 4 now includes a comparison of the dual-route
and connectionist models of reading. Chapters 6 and 8 have new sections on
the role of working memory in language comprehension and production, respec-
tively. In fact, Chapter 8 has been substantially revised to incorporate newer
research on covert monitoring, the lexical bias effect, and the ‘‘tip of the finger’’
effect in ASL. The treatment of bilingualism in Chapter 11 has been updated.
Chapter 12 now includes a discussion of twin and adoption studies. Chapters 13
and 14 have updated discussions of fMRI studies of language processing and
the effects of color on cognition, respectively.
This edition also follows the style of the earlier editions. Psycholinguistic
terms are printed in boldface. When a linguistic example is of sentence length
or longer, I have generally used the convention of numbering the example and
setting it apart from the text. For shorter examples, italics are used. Quotation
marks are employed when a term is used in an unusual or ironic manner.
xviii PREFACE

This edition includes a number of pedagogical features that will be helpful to

students. Chapters begin with a list of about four to six main points that the stu-
dent should expect to learn. Interim summaries occur after each major section of
the chapter, so that readers may assess their learning before going on. Each chap-
ter concludes with two sets of questions. Review Questions are directly related to
the material in the chapter, and students should be able to answer them if they
have read the chapter carefully. Thought Questions are intended to stimulate
thinking about the material in the chapter. Although the answers to these ques-
tions cannot be found directly in the chapter—indeed, most have no single
‘‘correct’’ answer—the material presented provides a basis for beginning to exam-
ine these questions. Finally, the book includes a glossary.
An instructor’s manual, prepared by Lydia Volaitis of Northeastern University,
is available for instructors who have adopted the book for classroom use. The
manual includes multiple-choice questions and suggested classroom activities,
readings, and Web sites for each chapter.
Additional resources for this book, including chapter-by-chapter glossaries,
flashcards, and Web links, can be found at http://www.thomsonedu.com/
psychology/dcarroll.
Once again, I would be delighted to hear from students or professors who are
using this book. You can reach me at the University of Wisconsin–Superior,
Superior, WI 54880, or by e-mail ([email protected]).
I am pleased to acknowledge the assistance of many people in the preparation
of this edition. First, I have benefited from the advice of a first-rate group of
reviewers. They include Sara Gilliam, New Mexico State University; Richard
Hurtig, University of Iowa; Michael Palij, New York University; Sandra Rietz,
Montana State University–Billings; and William Sturgill, Rockhurst University.
I also want to thank Alice S. Horning of Oakland University and her students
for their helpful comments on the fourth edition of this text.
The staff at Thomson Wadsworth was once again most helpful. I would like
to thank Marti Paul, Christina Ganim, Gina Kessler, Karol Jurado, and Erik
Evans. I would also like to thank Ravi Lakhina, Santosh Vasudevan, Laura Larson,
and Richard Camp for their contributions to the finished product.
Finally, I want to thank my wife, Deb, who has endured my periodic absences,
both physical and mental, during all five editions with patience, support, and love.
 P A R T I

General Issues
ß Chris Morrow/Stock, Boston

1 Introduction: Themes of Psycholinguistics

2 Linguistic Principles
3 Psychological Mechanisms
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