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Studies in the History of the English Language V
Variation and Change in English Grammar and Lexicon
1st Edition Robert A. Cloutier (Ed.) Digital Instant
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Studies in the History of the English Language V
Topics in English Linguistics
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Studies in the History
of the English Language V
Variation and Change in English Grammar
and Lexicon: Contemporary Approaches

Edited by
Robert A. Cloutier
Anne Marie Hamilton-Brehm
William A. Kretzschmar, Jr.

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Studies in the history of the English language V : variation and change

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Table of Contents

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

English Grammar
Dialogic Contexts as Motivations for Syntactic Change . . . . . . . . . 11
Elizabeth Traugott
Commentary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Akiko Nagano
Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Elizabeth Closs Traugott
Whatever Happened to English Sluicing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Joanna Nykiel
Commentary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Elizabeth Closs Traugott
Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Joanna Nykiel
Notion of Direction and Old English Prepositional Phrases. . . . . . . 67
Olga Thomason
Commentary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Joanna Nykiel
Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Olga Thomason
Survival of the Strongest: Strong Verb Inflection from Old to
Modern English . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Sherrylyn Branchaw
Commentary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Markku Filppula and Juhani Klemola
Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Sherrylyn Branchaw
Subject Compounding and a Functional Change of the Derivational
Su‰x -ing in the History of English . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Akiko Nagano
vi Table of Contents

Commentary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
Olga Thomason
Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
Akiko Nagano
Bad Ideas in the History of English Usage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
Don Chapman
Commentary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
Stefanie Kuzmack
Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
Don Chapman

English Lexicon
The State of English Etymology (A Few Personal Observations) . . . 161
Anatoly Liberman
Commentary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
Ann-Marie Svensson
Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
Anatoly Liberman
From Germanic ‘fence’ to ‘urban settlement’: On the Semantic
Development of English town. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
Ann-Marie Svensson and Jürgen Hering
Commentary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
Don Chapman
Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
Ann-Marie Svensson
Celtic Influence on English: A Re-Evaluation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
Markku Filppula and Juhani Klemola
Commentary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
Elisabeth Tacho
Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
Markku Filppula and Juhani Klemola
When arı #ven Came to England: Tracing Lexical Re-Structuring by
Borrowing in Middle and Early Modern English. A Case Study . . . 231
Elizabeth Tacho
 Table of Contents vii

Commentary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
Emily Runde
Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
Elisabeth Tacho
Reexamining Orthographic Practice in the Auchinleck Manuscript
Through Study of Complete Scribal Corpora . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
Emily Runde
Commentary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
Sherrylyn Branchaw
Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
Emily Runde
How Medium Shapes Language Development: The Emergence of
Quotative Re Online . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
Stefanie Kuzmack
Commentary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
Anatoly Liberman
Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
Stefanie Kuzmack
Author Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
Subject Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
Introduction

The conversation these days about the history of the English language
(HEL) has changed from what it used to be. The historical linguistics
(viz. internal history) and cultural studies (viz. external history) that have
marked traditional research on HEL are alive and well, but they have
been improved now by methods from corpus linguistics and sociolinguis-
tics. This collection shows how historical studies of English are increas-
ingly engaged with these contemporary trends in linguistics, and the vol-
ume demonstrates how empirical and other methods can bring classical
philology fully into the sphere of contemporary linguistics without aban-
doning its traditional concerns. This volume has two sections, the first on
grammar and syntax and the following section on word-based studies. Of
course grammar and lexicon cannot be entirely segregated. Both sections
highlight the contributions that strong empirical research can make to our
knowledge of the development of English grammar, especially as realized
in lexical development. And both sections pay serious attention to the fre-
quencies and discourse characteristics with which particular words have
been used at di¤erent times. Each essay will be followed immediately by
commentary from another of the authors in the cluster of papers, and
then the author will have the opportunity for a response to the commen-
tary. In this way the collection will show the kind of discussion currently
obtaining in the field, and more specifically in the section of the field in
which the pairs of authors find themselves. The essays in this volume thus
portray current research in HEL in the sort of conversations that in fact
actually characterize the field today. As Anatoly Liberman, known for
his classic work on historical etymology, writes in a commentary in this
volume on Kuzmack’s essay about development of the word re on the
Internet in the last two decades, regarding such new additions to the house
we have known as HEL,‘‘Welcome to the housewarming party.’’

English Grammar

The first section challenges researchers to examine and re-examine histori-

cal developments in English syntax from new perspectives and multiple
methods, including quantitative studies. Traditional analyses of historical
developments in English have focused on phonological, morphological,
2 Introduction

and syntactic motivations for change. The authors here expand the
approach to include consideration of pragmatic and semantic motivations
in qualitative and quantitative studies, complementing theoretical ap-
proaches rather than competing with them. The evident benefits shown
here encourage viewing the historical development of English with a
multidisciplinary perspective.
In the lead article for the first section, Elizabeth Traugott demonstrates
the potential for new syntactic constructions to arise in dialogic contexts
by examining diachronic changes in the use of all- and wh- pseudo-clefts.
In a review of approaches to motivations for language change, Traugott
explains that invited inferencing motivates speakers to exploit language-
internal implicatures, which may become conventionalized. Traugott iden-
tifies several linguistic expressions that function dialogically, such as the
concessives although and however, which convey dissonance or incom-
patibility between two eventualities. Tracing the history of all- and wh-
pseudo-clefts, Traugott provides textual evidence that they were initially
shaped in English by their use in argument refutation, progressing to
non-dialogic contexts after about fifty years in the historical record. Based
on the evolution of all- and wh- pseudo-clefts in dialogic contexts, Trau-
gott argues for an interactional approach to the study of language change,
and challenges scholars to reconsider oversimplified monologic perspectives
and generalized notions of motivation in diachronic syntactic research. In
her commentary on Traugott, Akiko Nagano suggests three constructions
that would benefit from the interactional approach because they involve
speaker evaluation of an utterance or its context, including conversion in
retorts, superlative adjectives, and speech-act conditionals. Responding to
Nagano’s discussion of conversions, Traugott agrees that some may have
arisen in dialogic and dialogual contexts of the type Nagano suggests, and
explains that because the histories of individual constructions di¤er, it is
important to consider the full range of interactional contexts in which
they arose and distinguish dialogic from dialogual contexts.
Joanna Nykiel addresses the problem of syntactic, semantic, and prag-
matic involvement in English sluicing by examining the evolution of this
structure in the language’s history. Sluicing is defined as a surface anaphor
with a full underlying structure that goes unpronounced, which Nykiel
exemplifies in the title of her article, ‘‘Whatever happened to English sluic-
ing.’’ This structure was initially associated with a full underlying repre-
sentation, an analysis that has persisted in later work. Through her dia-
chronic approach, Nykiel shows that sluicing is not such a purely
syntactic operation. In fact, despite drastic changes in the syntax and
 Introduction 3

morphology of English, her data indicate stability in this structure over

time, with syntax being statistically much less of a factor than has been
assumed, a fact that in turn speaks against an internal divide between sur-
face and deep anaphora. In its place, Nykiel proposes that an anaphor’s
features fall out from the number of syntactic and semantic clues it con-
tains that lead to successful resolution. Elizabeth Traugott then comments
on two points, what she calls the ‘‘Recency Illusion’’ and the stability of
constructions over a millennium, and raises the further research question
of whether the discovery of stable variation requires the investigator to
posit a prior stage without such variation. Nykiel responds by suggesting
the necessity to go beyond individual languages under investigation, when
stability or change in the history of a given construction seems surprising,
to consider typological similarities and di¤erences.
Olga Thomason examines Old English prepositional phrases that de-
note the general notion of direction, namely ‘to, toward,’ to gain greater
insight into the factors that contribute to the representation of this mean-
ing. This particular group of prepositions is peculiar because of the num-
ber of prepositions designating this concept (four of which are examined
in this study: to#, wiþ, toge#an, and onge#an) and because of the variety of
cases most of these prepositions can govern while maintaining a direc-
tional reading (up to three). This contrasts with the other, more specific
directional notions of ‘into,’ ‘onto,’ and ‘up to,’ which generally have
fewer prepositions designating the concept, and which are generally limited
to governing accusative case. Thomason explores each of the four preposi-
tions individually and demonstrates just how complicated their semantics
can be. She finds that a combination of the original semantics of the pre-
position, the semantics of the di¤erent cases, and the specific verbs with
which these prepositional phrases combine contributes to the variation in
this group. Joanna Nykiel’s commentary focuses on the puzzling variation
in distribution of cases. Thomason agrees with Nykiel’s suggestion to pre-
sent a chronological organization and statistical analysis of the data,
which anticipated the next step of research, to add a diachronic spin to
the primarily synchronic study.
Sherrylyn Branchaw examines seventy-eight Modern English verbs that
to some extent retain strong verbal inflection to see which factors already
evident in Old English may have influenced such an outcome. She focuses
on four factors: the number of verbs with the same ablaut pattern (type
frequency), the number of occurrences of a particular verb in Old English
(token frequency), the shape of the root, and the e‰ciency of the ablaut
pattern. She assumes a correlation between a verb’s being fully attested
4 Introduction

(the vocalism of each of its four principal parts is attested) and its fre-
quency and hypothesizes that strong verbs that are not fully attested in
Old English, if they survive, will be weak in Modern English. Her results
suggest that to varying degrees, all four of the factors investigated influ-
ence the outcome of strong verbs. A verb’s ablaut pattern seems to be a
very important factor in determining whether it will remain strong or
become weak: in almost all cases in Branchaw’s study, verbs with ablaut
patterns where the vowels are less distinct mostly shift to the weak cate-
gory or more rarely select very distinct vowels for the present and pre-
terite. Token frequency also has an e¤ect: more frequent verbs are more
likely to remain strong. Type frequency, on the other hand, does not
seem to play as great a role – only if the number of verbs with a particular
ablaut pattern is extremely high or low is there any sort of predictive
power because the organization into classes changed dramatically in early
Middle English. Even at these extremes, however, type frequencies are
easily overridden by token frequency and ablaut pattern e¤ects. Commen-
tary on Branchaw by Markku Filppula and Juhani Klemola o¤ers the
caveats that the nature of the surviving OE textual evidence suggests cau-
tion regarding any quantitative generalizations based on the corpus, and
that non-standard varieties need to be considered as well as the standard.
Branchaw responds especially to the second point, on which she had written
elsewhere, and suggests that her practice helps to explain the origin of
standard forms.
Akiko Nagano challenges the view that modern synthetic compounds,
such as city planning and housekeeping, can embody only the verb-object
relationship. Nagano traces the diachronic development of -ing compound
nouns, showing that Old and Middle English -ing compound nouns
allowed a subject-verb relationship, and that some types of modern -ing
compound nouns still do. An example from Nagano’s corpus-based re-
search is the compound noun artery hardening, which has the subject-
verb interpretation ‘‘arteries harden.’’ Further, Nagano provides evidence
that the main function of the derivational su‰x -ing has shifted from nam-
ing in Old and Middle English to recategorization, where -ing nominals
are event nominals and inherit the argument structure of the base verb,
while the naming function has remained the same since Old English and
has invariably produced result nominals. Nagano establishes a connection
between historical changes in the possibility of subject compounding in
-ing and the function of -ing nominalization, asserting that the possibility
of subject compounding depends on the function of the nominalization. In
her commentary on Nagano, Olga Thomason questions the constitution
 Introduction 5

of compounds of the ‘‘subject-compounding’’ type, the validity of the dis-

tinction between event and result nominals, and the morphological status
of the su‰x -ing. Thus, rather than accept the subject-verb interpretation
of fruit-ripening as ‘fruit ripens,’ Thomason explains the construction
along nominal lines such as ‘the ripening of fruit,’ where attributive, rather
than verbal, semantics apply. Nagano responds by clarifying that her
research addresses the derivational su‰x -ing rather than the participial
or gerundive -ing, which derives from a di¤erent inflectional su‰x in Old
English, arguing that the functional properties cited by Thomason do not
impair her claim.
In the final paper of this section, Don Chapman considers prescriptive
language rules that appear in usage books only once, which he terms
‘‘one-o¤s.’’ Collecting one-o¤s from a number of popular usage guides
dating from 1770 to 2007, he shows that one-o¤s constitute a very high
percentage of the total number of prescriptions. Chapman categorizes
one-o¤s, according to the probable reason for their failure, such as rare
constructions which go unnoticed, rules lacking su‰cient justification,
and rules having arbitrary justification. He considers why rules with justi-
fication that appears to be less arbitrary, such as logic, may also fail. In
her commentary on Chapman, Stefanie Kuzmack supports the treatment
of usage rules as a form of etiquette for the purpose of explaining them to
the public in terms other than truth and falsity. She suggests that a factor
worth considering in future research is that the e¤ectiveness of a type
of justification may vary with the audience in terms of era and region.
Kuzmack notes that while prescriptivism is viewed as a conservative prac-
tice, the high percentage of one-o¤s in guides suggests that prescriptivists
are actually not conservative. Chapman responds favorably to Kuzmack’s
suggestions regarding the quantified aspects of his study, and agrees that
the prescriptive tradition will continue to refresh its content in response
to new developments, noting that two recent usage manuals not included
in his study also have high percentages of one-o¤s. He observes that usage
manual editors, rather than being mere conservators of tradition, propose
new prescriptions on their own.

English Lexicon

The section on word-based studies invites readers to consider alternate ap-

proaches to diachronic study of lexical variants based on new discoveries
in linguistics and elsewhere and newly available technology. The research
6 Introduction

presented here encourages consultation of research written in languages

other than English and draws from both linguistic and non-linguistic
fields, such as socioeconomic and geographic history, archaeology, and
language-contact theory. In particular, the authors demonstrate the power
of computers and the Internet to enhance research and influence the de-
velopment of English. At the same time, the essays in the section do not
abandon traditional lexical research, such as the study of etymology in
the lead essay by Anatoly Liberman.
In his signature style that combines sharp wit with meticulous scholar-
ship, Liberman raises awareness of both historical problems in etymo-
logical science and modern di‰culties in obtaining funding. Tracing the
evolution of English etymology from Minsheu’s 1617 dictionary, he illu-
minates the technological challenges which have limited accuracy and
comprehensive investigation of word histories. Pointing out the limitations
of etymological works, including the canonical Oxford English Dictionary,
and lauding the benefits of computerized storage, Liberman argues strongly
for more rigorous research of word histories that have been ignored or
inaccurately derived from assumptions passed along from dictionary to
dictionary. Crucially, he points out the usefulness of etymological studies
printed in languages other than English, which are often missed. Ann-
Marie Svensson draws attention to the importance of Liberman’s dis-
tinction between present-day etymological lexicology and the science of
English etymology, noting Liberman’s characterization of the OED as
a historical rather than an etymological dictionary. In his response,
Liberman notes the disparity between the etymological information found
in dictionaries and the rich material in the accumulating corpus of articles
and books on Indo-European, Germanic, and English etymology and
looks forward to the establishment of an international center for English
etymology.
Ann Marie Svensson and Jürgen Hering examine the evolution of the
word town in English throughout the Middle English period, tracing its
development from the meaning ‘fence’ to ‘urban settlement’ in ninety texts
between 1100 and 1500. By considering the size, importance, and location
(British or non-British) of the localities receiving the designation town,
they are able to pinpoint the meaning of the word at various points in
time. They attribute the shift in meaning to various social, economic, and
political changes evident during the Middle English period, namely the
growth in population and importance of places originally designated as
town and the restriction of the designation borough, which was previously
used for urban settlements, to places with representatives summoned to
 Introduction 7

Parliament. In his commentary, Don Chapman aptly observes, ‘‘Who

would have suspected that town would be such an interesting word?’’
Chapman then focuses on context, and suggests that its importance sug-
gests a core mechanism of semantic change: not only do words mean as
they are used, they change meaning as they are used in di¤erent contexts.
Chapman hopes that study of interesting words like town can help us to
better understand the mechanisms of semantic change. Svensson responds
in agreement, that only context can guide the modern reader to under-
stand the developing shades of meaning in the semantic field.
Markku Filppula and Juhani Klemola challenge the traditional claim
of Germanic genocide upon the British population, with the consequence
that Celtic had little influence on English. As a case study, they apply
archaeological, demographic and historical evidence, language-contact
theory, and areal evidence from modern dialect research to argue for a
Celtic origin for periphrastic do. Archeological and genetic evidence sup-
ports a process of acculturation lasting two centuries after the arrival of
Germanic tribes, during which linguistic contact influences were highly
likely. Filppula and Klemola suggest that during a period of extensive
bilingualism, the Britons shifted to English and were assimilated culturally
and linguistically into the Anglo-Saxon population. They point out that
the dearth of Celtic loanwords in English should not be viewed as evi-
dence against Celtic influence, because it is predicted by language-contact
theory. They also list a number of non-Germanic features shared by
English and Celtic that are di‰cult to dismiss as coincidental, including
periphrastic do, which is characterized by properties which sets English
apart from other Germanic languages. Tacho commends Filppula and
Klemola on their interdisciplinary approach to the debate on Celtic influ-
ence. She raises the possibility that Anglo Norman and French loanwords
may have contributed to the increased number of periphrastic do construc-
tions in Middle English. On the other hand, Filppula and Klemola provide
evidence that the earliest examples of periphrastic do found in thirteenth
century southwestern verse show it was used with native verbs rather than
French loans. They further suggest a simple quantitative study calculating
the percentage of French loans associated with periphrastic do.
Elizabeth Tacho examines the process of the borrowing of the Anglo-
Norman loan word arıven # ‘to come ashore.’ By approaching this word
and meaning from both an onomasiological and a semasiological perspec-
tive, she traces the lexical and semantic changes during the verb’s transi-
tion period from Middle English to Early Modern English, examining a
number of written and speech-based text types from the mid-twelfth to
8 Introduction

# was borrowed in the course of the thirteenth

the fifteenth centuries. Arıven
century, eventually rivaling and replacing synonymous ME le#nden ‘to
land.’ After spreading rapidly and extending its meaning beyond ‘to
come ashore’ in the first half of the fifteenth century, ME arıven # has re-
mained largely stable henceforth. Emily Runde’s commentary generally
approves of what she calls a ‘‘meticulous semasiological study.’’ Runde
points out, however, that the paucity of early speech-based documents
may call into question Tacho’s assertion that arıven # was used first in
more literary texts, and that the views of one contemporary writer,
Mannyng, may contradict some of her findings. Tacho responds that, as
regards the scarcity of early speech-based texts, we are indeed limited by
what survives (‘‘the bad data problem’’), and that the Mannyng issue is
one that deserves further study.
Focusing on the Auchinleck Manuscript, Emily Runde tackles the
problem of scribal intervention in the transmission of medieval manu-
scripts. She narrows her study on the complete bodies of work of the two
most prolific Auchinleck scribes, commonly known as Scribes 1 and 3. She
traces the orthography of a number of words in the work of each of these
two scribes in order to determine their internal linguistic consistency as
well as the extent to which their practices throughout their complete cor-
pora reflect their linguistic profiles in LALME. She examines the consis-
tency with which initial <h-> is written, the spelling of words usually
used to distinguish Types II and III (Samuels 1989), and the spelling of
words that usually used to distinguish various Middle English dialects.
Her study shows greater consistency of spelling than is generally attributed
to Middle English scribes and fluctuation between Type II and Type III
spelling (challenging Samuels’ classification of these scribes as Type II) and
suggests a possible northern origin of two texts, namely Sir Tristem and
Horn Childe & Maiden Rimnild, due to the prevalence of northern spell-
ings of certain words not present in the Scribe 1’s other texts. Sherrylyn
Branchaw’s commentary approves of Runde’s innovation that, instead of
looking at di¤erent scribes for the same text, she looks at di¤erent texts
prepared by the same scribe. This practice permits her to estimate the
overall consistency of a single scribe’s habits so that, for instance, it is pos-
sible to say that Scribe 1 was unlikely to introduce northern forms in one
text when he had not introduced them in twenty-eight other texts. Runde
suggests in reply that she intends to extend her practice of using complete
scribal corpora to additional sets of manuscripts.
Stefanie Kuzmack considers the potential of the Internet as an environ-
ment for language change using the example of the quotative complemen-
 Introduction 9

tizer re, which evolved c. 1990 in threaded discussions to set up response

to earlier discourse. The use of quotative re derives from and is semanti-
cally related to the English preposition re ‘about, regarding,’ from Latin
in re (<res), used in the subject lines of memoranda and electronic mes-
sages, but di¤ers syntactically and pragmatically. Kuzmack notes, how-
ever, that quotative re’s meaning is not always salient and evidences
semantic bleaching. She argues that the unusual characteristics of re reflect
the influence of the online medium on its development, showing how the
online medium promoted such distinguishing characteristics as adjoint
complementation and noun phrase complementation, neither of which
are used with other English quotatives. Kuzmack concludes that quotative
complementizer re complements other English quotatives in both structure
and function, rather than competing with them. Reflecting on Kuzmack’s
research, Anatoly Liberman notes that Kuzmack reminds us that study of
the history of English need not be relegated to study of the distant past.
He points out the importance of writing in literate societies and notes
that the Internet and chatroom have dissipated di¤erences between speech
and writing. Liberman observes that because the public nature of Internet
texts makes them readily available for research, e-mail and chat can be
studied using methods comparable to those used to study recorded and
overheard conversations. Liberman expresses amusement that the folk
etymology of re reflects modern di¤erences in education. Responding to
Liberman’s observation that the Internet has brought written language
closer to spoken language, Kuzmack emphasizes that asynchronous com-
munication, an element of written register, was important to the develop-
ment of re. The fact that re is used in asynchronous writing caused it to
develop as a way to refresh memory of what had been said previously.
Kuzmack agrees that folk etymologies of re may reflect changes in edu-
cation, but suggests that even speakers who know Latin might conclude
that re is a new abbreviation since its use in subject lines is di¤erent from
previous uses.
These twelve conversations about aspects of HEL demonstrate the state
of the art. They involve increasing use of technology and quantitative
methods from corpus linguistics. They incorporate insights from modern
sociolinguistics and anthropology. And still they maintain the rigor and
scholarship that have long distinguished the tradition of study in HEL.
There are indeed new additions to the house that we celebrate in these
essays, while they also concern themselves with the regular maintenance
of HEL study.
Dialogic Contexts as Motivations for
Syntactic Change

Elizabeth Closs Traugott

1. Introduction

In recent years there has been considerable interest in accounting for moti-
vations for change: the ‘‘why’’ of change.1 Attention has been paid to vari-
ous aspects of diagrammatic iconicity within the framework of synchronic
cognitive linguistics (e.g., Radden and Panther 2004) and historical mor-
phosyntax (Fischer 2007), and also to interactional motivations such as
turn-taking and stance-taking (Waltereit and Detges 2007). In this paper
I will focus on the emergence of new syntactic constructions in the context
of interactional contesting or ‘‘dialogic’’ language use (Schwenter 2000),
using the rise of ALL- and WH- pseudo-clefts as my case study.
The outline is as follows. I will briefly review di¤erent approaches to
motivation (section 2) and then discuss dialogicity (section 3). Section 4
focuses on the linguistic contexts in which pseudo-clefts arose, and section
5 suggests questions for further research.

2. Approaches to motivations

There have been two main approaches to motivations, one focusing on

internal factors, the other on external as well as internal ones. Space per-
mits only the sketchiest of comments about theoretical stances that have
wide-reaching implications for both theoretical explanation and practice.

1. Various aspects of the development of ALL- and WH-pseudo-clefts were pre-

sented at IPra 10 (Traugott 2007) and in Traugott (2008). Many thanks to
audiences at IPra and at SHEL5 for comments. Most especially, thanks to
Scott A. Schwenter for drawing by attention to dialogicity, to Ruth Kempson
for discussion of my analysis of WH-clefts, and to two anonymous reviewers
of the present version. Needless to say, they are not responsible for any errors
that remain or for points of view expressed here.
12 Elizabeth Closs Traugott

‘‘Internal’’ approaches include synchronic work on various types of

iconicity (e.g., Haiman 1980), and pattern match (e.g., Cuyckens, Berg,
Dirven, and Panther 2003, Radden and Panther 2004).2 Motivations may
be cognitive, experiential, perceptual, etc. and therefore, strictly speaking,
language-independent. But the approach is internal in the sense that they
are construed as arising from factors ‘‘inherent in, and arising out of,
any given synchronic state of the language system’’ (Gerritsen and Stein
1992: 7).
Diachronic work in which change is construed as grammar change
(Kiparsky 1968) also involves an ‘‘internal’’ approach. For the most part,
it is assumed that language change results from language acquisition, and
that acquisition is passive: ‘‘Language learning is not really something that
the child does; it is something that happens to the child placed in an
appropriate environment’’ (Chomsky 1988: 134), ‘‘A grammar grows in a
child from some initial state (UG), when she is exposed to primary lin-
guistic data’’ (Lightfoot 2003: 107). Early proposals concerning competing
motivations (‘‘be clear’’ vs. ‘‘be quick/easy’’) by Langacker (1977) and
Slobin (1977) assume an internal perspective. In particular, Slobin pro-
posed a disembodied set of ‘‘ground rules,’’ ‘‘charges,’’ or ‘‘imperatives’’
to ‘‘the semi-mythical being whom I’ll refer to simply as Language’’
(p. 186; italics original). Speakers are guided by maxims based in logic
and language-internal Gricean implicatures.
‘‘External’’ approaches, by contrast, appeal to factors arising out of
human acts and actions, including language use in a community, contact,
and speaker-hearer negotiation of meaning. We may think here of inter-
locutors building common ground (Clark 1996), and resolving the compet-
ing motivations (‘‘be clear’’ vs. ‘‘be quick/easy’’) as construed by Du Bois
(e.g., 1985). Speakers and hearers are actively engaged in interaction
guided by maxims such as Keller’s (1994 [1990]), which are grounded in
the communicative dyad’s actions and purposes, e.g., ‘‘Talk in such a
way that you are not misunderstood’’ (p. 94), ‘‘Talk in such a way that
you are noticed,’’ ‘‘Talk in an amusing, funny way’’ (p. 101), ‘‘Talk like
the others talk’’ (p. 100).3

2. Taylor (2006) provides a good summary of the cognitive linguistic approach

to motivation, with a critique of possible circularity.
3. The first two types enable change, the third inhibits it. Grice’s (1989 [1975])
Maxims also appeal to the communicative dyad, but focus on internal logic
and implicatures.
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
 Microbiology - Teaching Resources
Third 2023 - Institute

Prepared by: Prof. Jones

Date: July 28, 2025

Introduction 1: Practical applications and examples

Learning Objective 1: Case studies and real-world applications
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Learning Objective 2: Ethical considerations and implications
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Learning Objective 3: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Learning Objective 4: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 4: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Learning Objective 5: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Note: Ethical considerations and implications
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Practical applications and examples
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Important: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Case studies and real-world applications
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Section 2: Theoretical framework and methodology
Key Concept: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 11: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Ethical considerations and implications
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 12: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 13: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 14: Experimental procedures and results
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Current trends and future directions
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 16: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice Problem 16: Practical applications and examples
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 17: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Definition: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 18: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Case studies and real-world applications
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 19: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Study tips and learning strategies
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Section 3: Key terms and definitions
Example 20: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 21: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Definition: Study tips and learning strategies
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 22: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Practical applications and examples
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Literature review and discussion
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Literature review and discussion
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Practical applications and examples
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Case studies and real-world applications
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Test 4: Comparative analysis and synthesis
Key Concept: Practical applications and examples
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 32: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Experimental procedures and results
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Case studies and real-world applications
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Historical development and evolution
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 38: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice Problem 38: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Literature review and discussion
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Topic 5: Comparative analysis and synthesis
Important: Best practices and recommendations
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Current trends and future directions
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 43: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Example 43: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Remember: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 47: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Definition: Historical development and evolution
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 48: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Important: Practical applications and examples
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 50: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Module 6: Learning outcomes and objectives
Practice Problem 50: Experimental procedures and results
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice Problem 51: Practical applications and examples
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Remember: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 53: Key terms and definitions
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 54: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Practical applications and examples
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 55: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Case studies and real-world applications
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 56: Experimental procedures and results
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 58: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Example 58: Best practices and recommendations
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 59: Case studies and real-world applications
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Chapter 7: Ethical considerations and implications
Key Concept: Ethical considerations and implications
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 61: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Important: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 62: Current trends and future directions
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Research findings and conclusions
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 64: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Current trends and future directions
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Current trends and future directions
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 68: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Practical applications and examples
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Best practices and recommendations
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
References 8: Learning outcomes and objectives
Example 70: Current trends and future directions
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
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