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Charles P. McKeague
Mark D. Turner
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Operations on Complex Numbers in Standard Form (8.1] Products and Quotients in Trigonometric Form [8.3]
If ZI= al + bli and Z2 = a2 .,. b2i are two complex numbers in standard form, If <I = rl(cos III + i sin III) and Z2 = r2(cos 112 + i sin liz) then
then the following definitions and operations apply.

Addition ZIZZ rlrz[cos (III + flzl + i sin (II, + (2)] = rlrZ cis (01 + 112)
Zl+ Zz Cal + azl + (b l + b2)i !"!. [cos (III fl2) i sin (0 1 - IIz)J . cis (III - 11 2)
Add real parts; add imaginary parts. <2 r2 '2

Subtraction
Zl - Zz (al a2l + (b l - bz)i Oe Moivre's Theorem [8.3]
Subtract real parts; subtract imaginary parts.
If z = r(cos II + i sin 0) is a complex number in trigonometric form and n is an
Multiplication integer, then
ZlZ2 (ala2 - b l b 2) + (a l b 2 + alb))i
In actual practice, simply multiply as you would multiply two binomials.
z" = r'(eos nil i sin nil) = t" cis (nil)

ConJugates Roots of a Complex Number [8.4]

The conjugate of a + bi is a ­ bi. Their product is the real number
Thc nth roots of the complex number
a Z + bZ•

Division z r(eos II + i sin e) rcis II

Multiply the numerator and denominator of the quotient by the conjugate are given by
of the denominator. 0 0
)j
r ( nfI +;-k + i sin IIn + -n-
Wk = rlln cos 360 ) ( 360 k

Graphing Complex Numbers [8.2] 0

= rliH cis Io+-

360- k ')

The graph of the complex number z x + yi is the arrow (vector) that extends n n
from the origin to fbe point (x, y). where k = 0, 1,2..... II - 1.
y
x + yi Polar Coordinates [8.5]
I
I
I The ordered pair (r. 0) names the point that is r units from fbe origin along the
I terminal side of angle II in standard position. The coordinates r and II are said
IY
I to be fbe polar coordinates of the point they name.
I
y
I' • x
x

8)
4" ·'i-""'i.',lv ~x

Absolute Value of a Complex Number [8.2]

The absolute value (or modulus) of the complex number x + yi is the dis­
tance from the origin to fbe point (x, y). If this distance is denoted by r, fben

r Izi = x + yi i
Polar Coordinates and Rectangular Coordinates [8.5]
Argument of a Complex Number [8.21 To derive the relationship between polar coordinates and rectangular coordi­
nates, we consider a point P with rectangular coordinates (x, y) and polar
The argument of the complex number z = x + yi is fbe smallest positive angle
coordinates (r, e). y
from the positive x-axis to the graph of z. If the argument of z is denoted by fl. then
v
x r = V x" + v" and tan 0 = ".. (x, y)
sin II = 2::. cos II and tan fI =X x
r r x (r, 8)
x r cos fI and y = r sin II

Trigonometric Form of a Complex Number [8.2]

I' )I • x
The complex number z = x + yi is written in trigonometric form when it is x
written as
z = r(cos fI + i sin fI ) = r cis fI
where r is the absolute value of z and fI is the argument of z.
Exact Values on the Unit Circle [3.3] Inverse Trigonometric Functions [4.7]
y Inverse Functio_n_______________M_e_a_n_in-'g~~~~__~____

11' 11'
y 8in- 1 x or y = arcsin x X = sin y and -­ 2 oS Y oS 2

In words: y is the angle between -11'/2 and 1T/2, inclusive, whose sine is x
Y cos­ 1 x or y = arccos x x = cos y and 0 oS Y oS 1T
In words: y is the angie between 0 and 1T, inclusive, whose cosine
is x,
7T 7T
(1,0) y = tan- 1 x or y == arctan x tan y and "2 < y < 2
~-- __ ------------~------------~~--~x
X

In words: y is the angle between -1T/2 and1T/2 whose tangent is x,

Inverse Sine Inverse Cosine Inverse Tangent

y = sin- 1 x y = cos- 1 x y tan-Ix

arcsin x arccos x = arctan x
y y y

(x, y) (cos 0, sin I/)

Radian Measure [3.2] -t----7I'"----+.... x

-t----+----+.... x
-I

B (in radians) = Sr 5 Domain: Domain: Domain:

-I x -I xoSl all real numbers
Range: Range: Range:

Converting Between Radians and Degrees [3.2] Uniform Circular Motion [3.4,3.5]

r
Degrees
Multiply by 1~0 +
Radians
A point on a circle of radius r moves a distance s on the circumference of tb
circle, in an amount of time t,

Angular Velocity Arc Length

o
LMUltiPIYbY 1!0 ~ s
w= 5 = rO
Area of a Sector
Linear Velocity
s A ~r2ll
2 v
v=­
t
Reference Angles [3.1] v rw
The reference angle {J for any angle fI in standard position is the positive acute fI is measured in radians
angle between the terminal side of 0 and the x-axis,

y The Area of a Triangle [7.4]

C
1
S 2ab sin C

s
I
wheres= 2(a+b c)

a 2 sin B sin C
s= 2 sin A
 DEF INITI ONS, GRAP HS, AND I MPORTA T FACTS
Definition I for Trigonometric Functions [1 .3] Graphs of the Trigonometric Functions [4.1]
, r y
. in Ii = '- C ' 8 = ­ ,. (Assume k js any integer)
r
y
x r
l"(b i l = ­ tl = ­
r x 3
-" 2 2
x
rol = ­
y -;;t:=::;::::=!-L-- - - x
x ·f?--+-41r--+-.....~ x

Definition II for Trigonometric Functions [2.11 -2 -2 2

, B -3 -3
..( = - - ~.~=­
a

21"",,,,,,,,·,,"
b Domain : All rea l numbe . D main: All real num rs
-t = ­ - -4 = ­
. Range: - ] ~y-l Range : -I ~yS I
I and Jdja em 10 B Amplitude: I mplitud :
.~= ­
A =­ .~bb C Period: 2.. P riod:
-'
id opfJO'-ite B :Uro : = k ... Zer . :
:!lid adJ.. nI iD A

Definition III for Trigonometric Functions [3.3]

=.': :0-:: .... ; = - ,. = un r

'="- ..r
1 =­ .' x
~ 1.01 ..­
, .j

=; f
Special Triangles [1.1J Domain: .A.ll real numbers Domain : All real ntim be rs
x= "-, - ";; x= ...
Range: All real numbc-r;, Ran"e: All real numbers
Amplilud : . 'ot defined Amplitude: . 'ot defiD~d
Period:
ZeT :
;r
x = :r;
Pe.-od:
Zero :
1r
x=
.., - krr

Asympl te .\ = - - or; A"~ mptOlc : x= ...

"- --9(f \. y
.'. =~\

Trigonometric Functions of Special Angles [2.1]

ti 0 6
.15' =T
r.
60' =
. T 90 0
= 2'
. 3Jr
2
x
3
2

"
i\. x
\, 4 _1°
'\ 0 '\
, :.: \ 3
2 2 -2 2 t ( ' \"I
If -2
~2 (\2If 2"
t I I I
-3 t I -3 I I
8 , \ 2 II VO' I I I I
2 2 2

Domain: All rea l numbers Domai n: All real numbers

ian 6 0 V3 undefined
....L 7T I k
.t -:- 2 ' 7i

Graphing Sine and Cosine Curves [4.2, 4.3] Ran ge : y :S - I or y 2:: 1 Range: \' :s - I or y 2:: I
Amp litude: Not defined Amp litude: NOl defined
Th graph , f,' = A in (Bx + C ) and y = A cos (Bx + C). where B > O. will Peri od: 2'iT Period : 2r.
have the follow ing charac teri stics:

Amplitude = A Peri od =
2"
B Phase shlfl =
. C
-8
Zeros:
Asymptotes:
None
X ::= kit
Ze ros:
Asy mptoles:
None
x = 2 +br
.
 IDEN TI.TIES AND FORMU LAS
Basic Identities [5.1] Product to Sum Formulas [5.5]
I
Common Equivalent sin A cos B =2 [s in (A + B) + sin (A - Bll
Basic Identities Forms
I
Reciprocal csc () =-­
I .
Sin () = - ­
1 cos A sin B = 2 [sin (A + B) - sin (A - B)l
sin () csc ()
1 1 I
sec () = - -() cos () =-­ cos A cos B = 2 [cos (A + B) + cos (A - B)l
cos sec ()
1 1 I
cot() = -­ tan () =-­ sin A sin B = 2[cOS (A - B) - cos (A + B)l
tan () cot(}

sin () Pythagorean Theorem [1.1)

Ratio tane = -­
cos e

Pythagorean
cos e
cote = - ­
sin ()
cos 2 e + sin 2 e = 1 si nl e = 1 - cos 2 e
sine
cos 2 ()
=

=
::<:::Yl -
1 - sin 2 e
cos 2 e
2J
A

The law of Sines [7.1]

o c

cos (} = : <: : YI -sinle c

J + tan 2 () = sec" e
1 + corl e = csc 1 () b a

Sum and Difference Formulas [5.2J Half-Angle Formulas [5.4] A c B

sin (A + B) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B . A (GfiZ
- cos A sin A sin B sin C
sin - == ±
sin (A - B) = sin A cos B - cos A sin B 2 \ 2 a o c
cos (A + B) = cosA cos B - si n A sinB
A I + cos A or. equivalently.
cos '2 -+- - -­
cos (A - B) = cos A cos B + sin A sin B 2 a 0 C
sin A sin B sin C
tan (A + B) = tan A -'- tan B A - cosA sin A
I - tan A tan B tan '2 sin A .L cos A
The law of Cosines [7.3]
tan (A _ B) = tan A - tan B
I ..,- tan A tan B
C
Even/Odd Functions [4.1]
cos (-8) = cos 8 a
Even o
Double-Angle Formulas [5.3J sin (-8) = - sin 8}
Odd
sin 2A = 2 sin A cos A tan ( -8) = -tan 8

cos 2A = cos' A - sin' A First form A c B

2 cos' A - I Second form a' = 0' + c' - 20c cos A
= I - 2 sin l A Third form Sum to Product Formulas [5.5]
cr +j3 cr-j3
b' = a' + c' - 2((c cos B
tan 2A = 2 tan A sin cr + si n {3 = 2 sin ~ cos - 2­ c' = a2 + 0' - 2ao cos C
I - tan' A
or. equivalently.
cr - j3 cr-j3
sin cr - sin j3 = 2 cos ~ sin ~ b 2 +c 2 -a 1
cos A
20c
Cofunction Theorem [2.1] cr +{3 cr-{3 a 2 -c 1 -b 1
cos cr + cos j3 = 2 cos ~ cos - 2 ­ cos B =
sin x = cos (90 0
- xl 2((c
cos x = sin (90 0
- x) cr+j3 cr - j3 (12 + b2 ­ c2
cos cr - cos j3 = -2 si n - -2- sin ~ cos C =
tan x = cot (90 0 - x) 2ao
 CHAPTER 1 THE SIX TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS 1

CHAPTER 2 RIGHT TRIANGLE TRIGONOMETRY 52

CHAPTER 3 RADIAN MEASURE 109

CHAPTER 4 GRAPHING AND INVERSE FUNCTIONS 169

CHAPTER 5 IDENTITIES AND FORMULAS 255

CHAPTER 6 EQUATIONS 299

CHAPTER 7 TRIANGLES 337

CHAPTER 8 COMPLEX NUMBERS AND POLAR

COORDINATES 389

APPENDIX A REVIEW OF FUNCTIONS 443

APPENDIX B EXPONENTIAL AND LOGARITHMIC

FUNCTIONS 464

ANSWERS TO EXERCISES AND

CHAPTER TESTS A-1

INDEX 1-1
tan

1.1 ANGLES, DEGREES, AND SPECIAL TRIANGLES 2

sir 1.2 THE RECTANGULAR COORDINATE SYSTEM 14
1.3 DEFINITION I: TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS 26
em
1.4 INTRODUCTION TO IDENTITIES 33
tal 1.5 MORE ON IDENTITIES 40
SUMMARY 45
TEST 48
PROJECTS 50
co

si

ta
2.1 DEFINITION II: RIGHT TRIANGLE TRIGONOMETRY 53
2.2 CALCULATORS AND TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
OF AN ACUTE ANGLE 61
s 2.3 SOLVING RIGHT TRIANGLES 70
2.4 APPLICATIONS 81
2.5 VECTORS: A GEOMETRIC APPROACH 93
SUMMARY 104
TEST 106
PROJECTS 108

3.1 REFERENCE ANGLE 110

3.2 RADIANS AND DEGREES 117
3.3 DEFINITION III: CIRCULAR FUNCTIONS 129
3.4 ARC LENGTH AND AREA OF A SECTOR 140
3.5 VELOCITIES 150
SUMMARY 162
TEST 164
PROJECTS 166
 Contents

i
:,.~"'..~#.ui'I.'"~~'fi"'i",:" I~,' ':0'.JI
.. .. ;iI~~~
;.:,. · :·.~.: ,'~.tlJ,'
... :y. _;i;·
0.· ·.I.·.,I_.'iI_ill.il._.,&J._
~
4.1 BASIC GRAPHS 170
4.2 AMPLITUDE, REFLECTION, AND PERIOD 184
4.3 VERTICAL TRANSLATION AND PHASE SHIFT 197
4.4 THE OTHER TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS 208
4.5 FINDING AN EQUATION FROM ITS GRAPH 218
4.6 GRAPHING COMBINATIONS OF FUNCTIONS 231
4.7 INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS 237
SUMMARY 249
TEST 252
PROJECTS 253

~~~.~~_J
:;",Jlf,
IDENTITIES AND FORMULAS 255
;(;\/0;:'4"," ;p; • i ~ ~ = '3f ",<"• • ,,,4

5.1 PROVING IDENTITIES 256

5.2 SUM AND DIFFERENCE FORMULAS 265
5.3 DOUBLE-ANGLE FORMULAS 275
5.4 HALF-ANGLE FORMULAS 282
5.5 ADDITIONAL IDENTITIES 288
SUMMARY 294
TEST 296
PROJECTS 297

EQUATIONS 299
6.1 SOLVING TRIGONOMETRIC EQUATIONS 300
6.2 MORE ON TRIGONOMETRIC EQUATIONS 308
6.3 TRIGONOMETRIC EQUATIONS INVOLVING
MULTIPLE ANGLES 313
6.4 PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS AND FURTHER GRAPHING 322
SUMMARY 332
TEST 333
PROJECTS 334
 Contents

7.1 THE LAW OF SINES 338

7.2 THE AMBIGUOUS CASE 348
7.3 THE LAW OF COSINES 356
7.4 THE AREA OF A TRIANGLE 364
7.5 VECTORS: AN ALGEBRAIC APPROACH 369
7.6 VECTORS: THE DOT PRODUCT 378
SUMMARY 383
TEST 385
PROJECTS 387

D
C(

s
8.1 COMPLEX NUMBERS 390
t, 8.2 TRIGONOMETRIC FORM FOR COMPLEX NUMBERS 398
8.3 PRODUCTS AND QUOTIENTS IN TRIGONOMETRIC FORM 404
8.4 ROOTS OF A COMPLEX NUMBER 410
8.5 POLAR COORDINATES 417
8.6 EQUATIONS IN POLAR COORDINATES AND THEIR GRAPHS 427
SUMMARY 437
TEST 440
PROJECTS 441

APPENDIX A REVIEW OF FUNCTIONS 443

A.1 INTRODUCTION TO FUNCTIONS 443
A.2 THE INVERSE OF A FUNCTION 454

APPENDIX B EXPONENTIAL AND LOGARITHMIC

FUNCTIONS 464
B.1 EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS 464
B.2 LOGARITHMS ARE EXPONENTS 474
B.3 PROPERTIES OF LOGARITHMS 482
B.4 COMMON LOGARITHMS AND NATURAL LOGARITHMS 487
B.5 EXPONENTIAL EQUATIONS AND CHANGE OF BASE 494

ANSWERS TO EXERCISES AND CHAPTER TESTS A-1

INDEX 1-1
•

This Sixth Edition of Trigonometry retains the same format and style as the previous
editions. It is a standard right-triangle approach to trigonometry. Nearly every section
is written so that it can be discussed in a typical 50-minute class session. The focus
ofthe textbook is on understanding the definitions and principles of trigonometry and
their applications to problem solving. Exact values of the trigonometric functions are
emphasized throughout the textbook.
The text covers all the material usually taught in trigonometry. In addition, there
is an appendix on functions and inverse functions and a second appendix on expo­
nential and logarithmic functions. The appendix sections can be used as a review of
topics that students may already be familiar with, or they can be used to provide thor­
ough instruction for students encountering these concepts for the first time.
There are numerous calculator notes placed throughout the text to help students
calculate values when appropriate. As there are many different models of graphing
calculators, and each model has its own set of commands, we have tried to avoid an
overuse of specific key icons or command names.

Ne\N to This Edition

CONTENT CHANGES The following list describes the major content changes
you will see in this Sixth Edition.

• Section 1.1: We have added a little more review of triangles.

• Section 1.2: The review of the rectangular coordinate system has been short­
ened. The content on circles has been expanded and now follows the distance
formula. Several of the examples in this section have been replaced.
• Section 2.3: In response to user requests, we have revised our definition of sig­
nificant digits so that it is consistent with other disciplines such as chemistry.
• Section 3.3: This section has been completely rewritten to emphasize the con­
cept of function. We have also added content on domain and range. The material
on odd and even functions has been moved to Section 4.1.
• Chapter 4: The graphing content in Chapter 4 has been expanded to four
sections, and we now cover the sine and cosine functions first. A unified graph­
ing approach involving framing a basic cycle has been incorporated into these
sections.
• Section 4.5: Previously Section 4.4, we have added material on using trigono­
metric functions as models with real data.
• Section 6.4: New exercises and an example were added for graphing plane
curves.
• Section 7.1: This section now includes a summary of the different cases and the
method used in solving oblique triangles.
• Chapter 8: We have increased the use of radians throughout this chapter.
 •

ur
as
\.s

lS
ly
re

~-

t.
w
Without Thales there would not have been a Pythagoras-or such a Pythagoras;
,e
e and without Pythagoras there would not have been a Plato-or such a Plato.
D. E. Smith

a
:r
U
11 The history of mathematics is a spiral of knowledge passed down from one genera­
tion to another. Each person in the history of mathematics is connected to the others
along this spiral. In Italy, around 500 B.C., the Pythagoreans discovered a relationship
between the sides of any right triangle. That discovery, known as the Pythagorean
Theorem, is the foundation on which the Spiral of Roots shown in Figure 1 is built.
The Spiral of Roots gives us a way to visualize square roots of positive integers.

Figure 1

In Problem Set 1.1, you will have a chance to construct the Spiral of Roots
In Examples and Problem Sets yourself.
throughout the chapter:

= Tutorial available on video

~ = Tutorial available online
I Chapter 1 The Six Trigonometric Functions

STUDY SKILLS FOR CHAPTER 1

c' At the beginning of the first few chapters of this book you will find a Study Skills sec­
tion in which we list the skills that are necessary for success in trigonometry. If you
have just completed an algebra class successfully, you have acquired most of these
skills. If it has been some time since you have taken a math class, you must pay
attention to the sections on study skills.
Il
Here is a list of things you can do to develop effective study skills.
1 Put YourseH on a Schedule The general rule is that you spend two hours
on homework for every hour you are in class. Make a schedule for yourself, set­
c'
ting aside at least six hours a week to work on trigonometry. Once you make the
t,
schedule, stick to it. Don't just complete your assignments and then stop. Use all
the time you have set aside. If you complete an assignment and have time left
over, read the next section in the book, and work more problems. As the course
progresses you may find that six hours a week is not enough time for you to mas­
[ ter the material in this course. If it takes you longer than that to reach your goals
c for this course, then that's how much time it takes. Trying to get by with less will
not work.
2 Find Your Mistakes and Correct Them There is more to studying
trigonometry than just working problems. Yciu must always check your answers
with those in the back of the book. When you have made a mistake, find out what
it is and correct it. Making mistakes is part of the process of learning mathemat­
ics. The key to discovering what you do not understand can be found by correct­
ing your mistakes.
3 Imitate Success Your work should look like the work you see in this book
and the work your instructor shows. The steps shown in solving problems in this
book were written by someone who has been successful in mathematics. The
same is true of your instructor. Your work should imitate the work of people who
have been successful in mathematics.
4 Memorize Definitions and Identities You may think that memorization
is not necessary if you understand a topic you are studying. In trigonometry,
memorization is especially important. In this first chapter, you will be presented
with the definition of the six trigonometric functions that you will use through­
out the rest of the course. We have seen many bright students struggle with
trigonometry simply because they did not memorize the definitions and identi­
ties when they were first presented.

~ ~1 11 ANGLES, DEGREES, AND SPECIAL

-">1 SECTION. TRIANGLES

Introduction
Table 1 is taken from the trail map given to skiers at Northstar at Tahoe Ski Resort in
Lake Tahoe, California. The table gives the length of each chair lift at Northstar,
along with the change in elevation from the beginning of the lift to the end of the lift.
•
Section 1.1 Angles, Degrees, and Special Triangles

Lift Infonnation
Vertical
Rise
480 4,100
120 790
710 4,890
Aspen Express Quad 900 5,100
Forest Double 1,170 5,750
Lookout Double 960 4,330
Comstock Express Quad 1,250 5,900
Rendezvous Triple 650 2,900
Schaffer Camp Triple 1,860 6,150
Chipmunk Tow Lift 28 280
Bear Cub Tow Lift 120 750

Right triangles are good mathematical models for chair lifts. In this section we
review some important items from geometry, including right triangles. Let's begin by
looking at some of the terminology a.<;sociated with angles.
o
Angles in General
An angle is formed by two rays with the same end point. The common end point is
called the vertex of the angle, and the rays are called the sides of the angle.
In Figure 1 the vertex of angle e (theta) is labeled 0, and A and B are points on
Figure 1 each side of e. Angle e can also be denoted by AOB, where the letter associated with
the vertex is written between the letters associated with the points on each side.
We can think of e as having been formed by rotating side OA about the vertex to
Positive side OB. In this case, we call side OA the initial side of e and side OB the terminal
angle
side ofe.
When the rotation from the initial side to the terminal side takes place in a coun­
Negative
angle terclockwise direction, the angle formed is considered a positive angle. If the rotation
is in a clockwise direction, the angle formed is a negative angle (Figure 2).

Degree Measure
Figure 2
One way to measure the size of an angle is with degree measure. The angle formed
by rotating a ray through one complete revolution has a measure of 360 degrees, writ­
ten 3600 (Figure 3).
One degree (1°), then, is 11360 of a full rotation. Likewise, 1800 is one-half of a
full rotation, and 90 0 is half of that (or a quarter of a rotation). Angles that measure
90 0 are called right angles, while angles that measure 1800 are called straight angles.
Angles that measure between 0 0 and 90 0 are called acute angles, while angles that
measure between 90 0 and 180° are caned obtuse angles (see Figure 4).
One complete If two angles have a sum of 90 0 , then they are called complementary angles, and
revolution = 3600 we say each is the complement of the other. Two angles with a sum of 1800 are called
Figure 3 supplementary angles.
I Chapter 1 The Six Trigonometric Functions

D
Note To be precise, we should say "two angles, the sum of the measures of which
is 180°, are called supplementary angles" because there is a difference between an
angle and its measure. However, in this book, we will not always draw the distinction
C<
between an angle and its measure. Many times we will refer to "angle 0" when we
actually mean "the measure of angle tJ."

Note The little square by the vertex of the right angle in Figure 4 is used to indi­
D cate that the angle is a right angle. You will see this symbol often in the book.

1800
t
C Acute angle
Right angle Straight angle

Obtuse angle Complementary angles Supplementary angles

Figure 4

~.Il~I~""",,<,,~,,", Give the complement and the supplement of each angle.

a. 40° b. 110° c. tJ
SOLUTION
a. The complement of 40° is 50° since 40° + 50° = 90°.
The supplement of 40° is 140° since 40° + 140° 180°.
b. The complement of 110° is - 20° since 110° + (- 20°) = 90°.
The supplement of 110° is 70° since 110° + 70° = 180°.
c. The complement of tJ is 90° - tJ since tJ + (90° - tJ) = 90°.
The supplement of tJ is 1800 tJ since tJ + (180 0 - tJ) = 180 0 •
•
Triangles
A triangle is a three-sided polygon. Every triangle has three sides and three angles. We
B denote the angles (or vertices) with uppercase letters and the lengths of the sides with
lowercase letters, as shown in Figure 5. It is standard practice in mathematics to label
the sides and angles so that a is opposite A, b is opposite B, and c is opposite C.
a There are different types of triangles that are named according to the relative
lengths of their sides or angles (Figure 6). In an equilateral triangle, all three sides
are of equal length and al1 three angles are equal. An isosceles triangle has two equal
A L -_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ~ C sides and two equal angles. If all the sides and angles are different, the triangle is
b called scalene. In an acute triangle, all three angles are acute. An obtuse triangle has
Figure 5 exactly one obtuse angle, and a right triangle has one right angle.

_ _ _ _---B;J!lI·_ _.IIII£II!IIII.~~§'lIl.",u"___':_.fIlil;jl!!'oII!,,IIIIblot'''.III•••.la~lII!U%l
...
Section 1.1 Angles, Degrees, and Special Triangles

Equilateral Isosceles
~ Scalene

Acute Obtuse Right

Figure 6

Special Triangles
As we will see throughout this text, right triangles are very important to the study of
trigonometry. In every right triangle, the longest side is called the hypotenuse, and it
is always opposite the right angle. The other two sides are called the legs of the right
triangle. Because the sum of the angles in any triangle is 180 0 , the other two angles
in a right triangle must be complementary, acute angles. The Pythagorean Theorem
that we mentioned in the introduction to this chapter gives us the relationship that ex­
ists among the sides of a right triangle. First we state the theorem.

PYTHAGOREAN THEOREM
In any right triangle, the square ofthe length of the longest side (called the hy­
potenuse) is equal to the sum of the squares of the lengths of the other two
sides (called legs).

c
a IfC=90°,
then c 2 = a 2 + b2
A? 'e
Figure 7

Next we will prove the Pythagorean Theorem. Part of the proof involves finding
the area of a triangle. In any triangle, the area is given by the formula
I
Area 'l(base)(height)

For the right triangle shown in Figure 7, the base is b, and the height is a. There­
I
fore the area is A = 'lab.

";'j"""''''~~I'l'I''''''''''''l!Iji'''~'''II"i'i!l~''''''''!J''!~
I Chapter 1 The Six Trigonometric Functions

a A Proof of the Pythagorean Theorem

si
b There are many ways to prove the Pythagorean Theorem. The Group Project at the end
c
cc a of this chapter introduces several of these ways. The method that we are offering here
is based on the diagram shown in Figure 8 and the formula for the area of a triangle.
ta Figure 8 is constructed by taking the right triangle in the lower right corner and
repeating it three times so that the final diagram is a square in which each side has
length a + b.
o c b
To derive the relationship between a, b, and c, we simply notice that the area of
si a the large square is equal to the sum of the areas of the four triangles and the inner
square. In symbols we have
Figure 8
C(
Area of large Area of four Area of inner
square triangles square

4( +ab) +
We expand the left side using the formula for the square of a binomial, from
1
algebra. We simplify the right side by multiplying 4 with 2

Adding -2ab to each side, we have the relationship we are after:

a 2 + b 2 = c2

Solve for x in the right triangle in Figure 9.

A~~ x+7
Figure 9

SOLUTION Applying the Pythagorean Theorem gives us a quadratic equation to

solve.
(x + x 2 = 132
+ 7)2
x 2 + 14x + 49 + x 2 = 169 Expand (x + 7)2 and 132
2x2 + 14x + 49 169 Combine similar terms
2x 2 + 14x - 120 = 0 Add -169 to both sides
2
x + 7x 60 =0 Divide both sides by 2
(x - 5)(x + 12) 0 Factor the left side
x 5 0 or x + 12 = 0 Set each factor to 0
x=5 or x = 12
Our only solution is x = 5. We cannot use x = -12 because x is the length of a side
of triangle ABC and therefore cannot be negative. •

_ _ _ _ _ _.';1111,._IIIElllltfJ:'.o§A 2
... ",,:;m-rm t---,

Section 1.1 Angles, Degrees, and Special Triangles

Note The lengths of the sides of the triangle in Example 2 are 5,12, and 13. When­
ever the three sides in a right triangle are natural numbers, those three numbers are
called a Pythagorean triple.

~ Table 1 in the introduction to this section gives the

vertical rise of the Forest Double chair lift (Figure 10) as 1,170 feet and the length of
the chair lift as 5,750 feet. To the nearest foot, find the horizontal distance covered by
a person riding this lift.

SOLUTION Figure 11 is a model of the Forest Double chair lift. A rider gets on
the lift at point A and exits at point B. The length of the lift is AB.

~.
~
{lift'" S,
Verticalrise=:I,170ft
A C
Horizontal distance =x
'"
~ Figure 11
I
I-'
11
To find the horizontal distance covered by a person riding the chair lift we use
the Pythagorean Theorem:
~
@
5,75{}2 = x2 + 1,1702 Pythagorean Theorem
Figure 10
2
33,062,500 x + 1,368,900 Simplify squares
x2 33,062,500 - 1,368,900 Solve for x 2
= 31,693,600 Simplify the right side
x = \131,693,600
x 5,630ft To the nearest foot
A rider getting on the lift at point A and riding to point B will cover a horizontal dis­
tance of approximately 5,630 feet. •

Before leaving the Pythagorean Theorem we should mention something about

Pythagoras and his followers, the Pythagoreans. They established themselves as a se­
cret society around the year 540 B.C. The Pythagoreans kept no written record of
their work; everything was handed down by spoken word. Their influence was not
only in mathematics, but also in religion, science, medicine, and music. Among
other things, they discovered the correlation between musical notes and the recipro­
cals of counting numbers, i, }, 1,
and so on. In their daily lives they followed strict
dietary and moral rules to achieve a higher rank in future lives. The British philoso­
3001 pher Bertrand Russell has referred to Pythagoras as "intellectually one of the most
important men that ever lived."
211 1t{3
THE 30°_60°_90' TRIANGLE
In any right triangle in which the two acute angles are 30° and 60°, the longest
side (the hypotenuse) is always twice the shortest side (the side opposite the
30° angle), and the side of medium length (the side opposite the 60° angle) is
30°_60°_90° always V3 times the shortest side (Figure 12).
Figure 12
 Chapter 1 The Six Trigonometric Functions

Note The shortest side t is opposite the smallest angle 30°. The longest side 2t is
opposite the largest angle 90° .
c
To verify the relationship between the sides in this triangle, we draw an equilat­
eral triangle (one in which all three sides are equal) and label half the base with t
(Figure l3).
The altitude h (the colored line) bisects the base. We have two 30°-60°-90° tri­
[ angles. The longest side in each is 2t. We find that h is tV3 by applying the
Pythagorean Theorem.
t2 + h2 = (2t)2
Figure 13
c h V~4t-::-2-~t2

V3t2
=tV3
If the shortest side of a 30°-60°-90° triangle is 5, find
5..[3 the other two sides.

SOLUTION The longest side is 10 (twice the shortest side), and the side opposite
the 60° angle is 5V3 (Figure 14). •

5 A ladder is leaning against a wall. The top of the ladder

Figure 14 is 4 feet above the ground and the bottom of the ladder makes an angle of 60° with
the ground (Figure 15). How long is the ladder, and how far from the wall is the bot­
tom of the ladder?

SOLUTION The triangle formed by the ladder, the wall, and the ground is a
30°-60°-90° triangle. If we let x represent the distance from the bottom of the ladder
to the wall, then the length of the ladder can be represented by 2x. The distance
from the top of the ladder to the ground is xV3, since it is opposite the 60° angle
(Figure 16). It is also given as 4 feet. Therefore,

4
4
x
V3
4V3 Rationalize the denominator
by multiplying the numerator
3
and denominator by V3.

Figure 15 Figure 16
II

Section 1.1 Angles, Degrees, and Special Triangles

The distance from the bottom of the ladder to the wall, x, is 4\13/3 feet, so the
length of the ladder, 2x, must be 8\13/3 feet. Note that these lengths are given in
exact values. If we want a decimal approximation for them, we can replace \13 with
1.732 to obtain
4\13
2.309 ft
3
8\13
3
= 4.619 ft
•
Calculator Note On a scientific calculator, this last calculation could be done
as follows:
8 30 30
On a graphing calculator, the calculation is done like this (Figure 17):
I<'igure 17 8 3 I
3 ENTER I
Some graphing calculators use parentheses with certain functions, such as the
45"1 square root function. For example, the TI-84 will automatically insert a left paren­
thesis, so TI-84 users should skip this key. Other models do not require them. For the
sake of clarity, we will often include parentheses throughout this book. You may be
able to omit one or both parentheses with your model.

45° If the two acute angles in a right triangle are both 45 0 , then the two shorter
sides (the legs) are equal and the longest side (the hypotenuse) is V2 times as
45°-45°-90° long as the shorter sides. That is, if the shorter sides are of length t, then the
Figure 18 longest side has length (Figure 18).

To verify this relationship, we simply note that if the two acute angles are equal,
then the sides opposite them are also equal. We apply the Pythagorean Theorem to
find the length of the hypotenuse.
hypotenuse ~
= V2f2
tV2

• EXAMpLE 6 A lO-foot rope connects the top of a tent pole to the

ground. If the rope makes an angle of 45° with the ground, find the length of the tent
pole (Figure 19).

SOLUTION Assuming that the tent pole forms an angle of 90 0 with the ground,
the triangle formed by the rope, tent pole, and the ground is a 45°-45°-90° triangle
(Figure 20).
If we let x represent the length of the tent pole, then the length of the rope, in
terms of x, is xV2. It is also given as 10 feet. Therefore,
xV2 10
10
x -;= = 5V2
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