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 Brief Contents

Preface xiii Chapter 12

Chapter 1 Hypothesis Tests Applied to Means:
Introduction 1 One Sample 299

Chapter 2 Chapter 13
Basic Concepts 18 Hypothesis Tests Applied to Means:
Two Related Samples 334
Chapter 3
Displaying Data 35 Chapter 14
Hypothesis Tests Applied to Means:
Chapter 4 Two Independent Samples 351
Measures of Central Tendency 64
Chapter 15
Chapter 5 Power 378
Measures of Variability 80
Chapter 16
Chapter 6 One-Way Analysis of Variance 403
The Normal Distribution 108
Chapter 17
Chapter 7 Factorial Analysis of Variance 447
Basic Concepts of Probability 130
Chapter 18
Chapter 8 Repeated-Measures Analysis of
Sampling Distributions and Variance 476
Hypothesis Testing 150
Chapter 19
Chapter 9 Chi-Square 495
Correlation 183
Chapter 20
Chapter 10 Nonparametric and Distribution-Free
Regression 226 Statistical Tests 524
Chapter 11 Chapter 21
Multiple Regression 265 Meta-Analysis 544

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vi Brief Contents

Appendix A Appendix E
Arithmetic Review 562 Statistical Tables 580
Appendix B
Glossary 598
Symbols and Notation 569
References 604
Appendix C
Basic Statistical Formulae 572 Answers to Exercises 610
Index 635
Appendix D
Data Set 576

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 Contents

Preface xiii 3.5 Describing Distributions 52

3.6 Using SPSS to Display Data 54
Chapter 1 3.7 Summary 55
Introduction 1 3.8 A Quick Review 56
3.9 Exercises 57
1.1 A Changing Field 3
1.2 The Importance of Context 5
1.3 Basic Terminology 6 Chapter 4
1.4 Selection among Statistical Measures of Central
Procedures 10 Tendency 64
1.5 Using Computers 12 4.1 The Mode 65
1.6 Summary 14 4.2 The Median 65
1.7 A Quick Review 15 4.3 The Mean 66
1.8 Exercises 16 4.4 Relative Advantages and
Disadvantages of the Mode, the
Chapter 2 ­Median, and the Mean 67
Basic Concepts 18 4.5 Obtaining Measures of Central
Tendency Using SPSS and R 69
2.1 Scales of Measurement 19
4.6 A Simple Demonstration—
2.2 Variables 24
Seeing Statistics 72
2.3 Random Sampling 26
4.7 Summary 75
2.4 Notation 27
4.8 A Quick Review 76
2.5 Summary 30
4.9 Exercises 76
2.6 A Quick Review 30
2.7 Exercises 31
Chapter 5
Chapter 3 Measures of Variability 80
Displaying Data 35 5.1 Range 83
5.2 Interquartile Range and Other
3.1 Plotting Data 37
Range Statistics 84
3.2 Stem-and-Leaf Displays 42
5.3 The Average Deviation 85
3.3 Reading Graphs 47
5.4 The Variance 85
3.4 Alternative Methods of
5.5 The Standard Deviation 87
Plotting Data 49
vii

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viii Contents

5.6 Computational Formulae for 7.6 Probability Distributions for

the Variance and the Standard Discrete Variables 142
Deviation 88 7.7 Probability Distributions for
5.7 The Mean and the Variance as Continuous Variables 143
Estimators 90 7.8 Summary 145
5.8 Boxplots: Graphical Representations 7.9 A Quick Review 147
of Dispersion and ­Extreme 7.10 Exercises 147
Scores 91
5.9 A Return to Trimming 95 Chapter 8
5.10 Obtaining Measures of Dispersion Sampling Distributions and
Using SPSS & R 96 Hypothesis Testing 150
5.11 The Moon Illusion 99 8.1 Sampling Distributions and the
5.12 Seeing Statistics 101 Standard Error 151
5.13 Summary 103 8.2 Two More Examples Involving
5.14 A Quick Review 104 Course Evaluations and Human
5.15 Exercises 105 Decision Making 153
8.3 Hypothesis Testing 156
Chapter 6 8.4 The Null Hypothesis 159
The Normal Distribution 108 8.5 Test Statistics and Their Sampling
6.1 The Normal Distribution 111 Distributions 161
6.2 The Standard Normal 8.6 Using the Normal Distribution to
Distribution 115 Test Hypotheses 162
6.3 Setting Probable Limits on an 8.7 Type I and Type II Errors 167
Observation 122 8.8 One- and Two-Tailed Tests 171
6.4 Measures Related to z 123 8.9 Seeing Statistics 175
6.5 Seeing Statistics 124 8.10 A Final Example 176
6.6 Summary 125 8.11 Back to Course Evaluations and
6.7 A Quick Review 126 Sunk Costs 178
6.8 Exercises 126 8.12 Summary 178
8.13 A Quick Review 179
8.14 Exercises 180
Chapter 7
Basic Concepts of Chapter 9
Probability 130 Correlation 183
7.1 Probability 131 9.1 Scatter Diagrams 184
7.2 Basic Terminology and Rules 133 9.2 An Example: The Relationship
7.3 The Application of Probability to Between the Pace of Life and
Controversial Issues 138 Heart Disease 190
7.4 Writing Up the Results 140 9.3 The Covariance 191
7.5 Discrete Versus Continuous 9.4 The Pearson Product-Moment
Variables 141 Correlation Coefficient (r) 192

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 Contents ix

9.5 Correlations with Ranked 10.8 Seeing Statistics 249

Data 194 10.9 A Final Example for Review 253
9.6 Factors That Affect the 10.10 Regression Versus
Correlation 196 Correlation 257
9.7 Beware Extreme 10.11 Summary 257
Observations 200 10.12 A Quick Review 259
9.8 Correlation and Causation 201 10.13 Exercises 259
9.9 If Something Looks Too Good to
Be True, Perhaps It Is 203 Chapter 11
9.10 Testing the Significance of a Multiple Regression 265
Correlation Coefficient 204
11.1 Overview 266
9.11 Confidence Intervals on
11.2 Funding Our Schools 269
Correlation Coefficients 207
11.3 The Multiple Regression
9.12 Intercorrelation Matrices 209
Equation 275
9.13 Other Correlation Coefficients 211
11.4 Residuals 282
9.14 Using SPSS to Obtain Correlation
11.5 Hypothesis Testing 283
Coefficients 212
11.6 Refining the Regression
9.15 r2 and the Magnitude of an
Equation 284
Effect 212
11.7 Special Section: Using R to
9.16 Seeing Statistics 214
Solve a Multiple Regression
9.17 A Review: Does Rated Course
Problem 286
Quality Relate to Expected
11.8 A Second Example: What Makes a
Grade? 218
Confident Mother? 287
9.18 Summary 220
11.9 Third Example: Psychological
9.19 A Quick Review 221
Symptoms in Cancer
9.20 Exercises 222
Patients 290
11.10 Summary 293
Chapter 10 11.11 A Quick Review 294
Regression 226 11.12 Exercises 294
10.1 The Relationship Between Stress
and Health 227 Chapter 12
10.2 The Basic Data 229 Hypothesis Tests Applied to
10.3 The Regression Line 231 Means: One Sample 299
10.4 The Accuracy of Prediction 239
10.5 The Influence of Extreme 12.1 Sampling Distribution of the
Values 245 Mean 301
10.6 Hypothesis Testing in 12.2 Testing Hypotheses about Means
Regression 246 when s Is Known 303
10.7 Computer Solution Using 12.3 Testing a Sample Mean When s
SPSS 247 Is Unknown (The One-Sample t
Test) 308

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x Contents

12.4 Factors That Affect the 13.10 A Quick Review 347

Magnitude of t and the Decision 13.11 Exercises 348
about H0 315
12.5 A Second Example: The Moon Chapter 14
Illusion 315 Hypothesis Tests Applied
12.6 How Large Is Our Effect? 316 to Means: Two Independent
12.7 Confidence Limits on the
Samples 351
Mean 317
12.8 Using SPSS and R to Run One- 14.1 Distribution of Differences
Sample t Tests 320 Between Means 352
12.9 A Good Guess Is Better than 14.2 Heterogeneity of Variance 360
Leaving It Blank 322 14.3 Nonnormality of
12.10 Seeing Statistics 324 Distributions 362
12.11 Confidence Intervals Can Be 14.4 A Second Example with Two
Far More Important than a Null Independent Samples 362
Hypothesis Test 328 14.5 Effect Size Again 365
12.12 Summary 330 14.6 Confidence Limits on µ1 – µ2 366
12.13 A Quick Review 331 14.7 Confidence Limits on Effect
12.14 Exercises 331 Size 367
14.8 Plotting the Results 368
14.9 Writing Up the Results 369
Chapter 13
14.10 Do Lucky Charms Work? 369
Hypothesis Tests Applied 14.11 Seeing Statistics 372
to Means: Two Related 14.12 Summary 373
Samples 334 14.13 A Quick Review 374
13.1 Related Samples 335 14.14 Exercises 375
13.2 Student’s t Applied to Difference
Scores 336 Chapter 15
13.3 The Crowd Within Is Like the Power 378
Crowd Without 339 15.1 The Basic Concept of Power 381
13.4 Advantages and Disadvantages of 15.2 Factors Affecting the Power of a
Using Related Samples 341 Test 382
13.5 How Large an Effect Have We 15.3 Calculating Power the Traditional
Found?—Effect Size 342 Way 385
13.6 Confidence Limits on 15.4 Power Calculations for the One-
Change 344 Sample t Test 387
13.7 Using SPSS and R for t Tests on 15.5 Power Calculations for Differences
Related Samples 345 Between Two Independent
13.8 Writing Up the Results 346 Means 390
13.9 Summary 346

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 Contents xi

15.6 Power Calculations for the t Test 17.5 Measures of Association and
for Related Samples 394 Effect Size 460
15.7 Power Considerations in Terms of 17.6 Reporting the Results 463
Sample Size 395 17.7 Unequal Sample Sizes 464
15.8 You Don’t Have to Do It by 17.8 Masculine Overcompensation
Hand 395 Thesis: It’s a Male Thing 464
15.9 Post-hoc (Retrospective) 17.9 Using SPSS for Factorial Analysis
Power 397 of Variance 467
15.10 Summary 399 17.10 Seeing Statistics 468
15.11 A Quick Review 399 17.11 Summary 469
15.12 Exercises 400 17.12 A Quick Review 470
17.13 Exercises 471
Chapter 16
One-Way Analysis of Chapter 18
Variance 403 Repeated-Measures Analysis of
16.1 The General Approach 404 Variance 476
16.2 The Logic of the Analysis of 18.1 An Example: Depression as a
Variance 407 Response to an Earthquake 477
16.3 Calculations for the Analysis of 18.2 Multiple Comparisons 483
Variance 412 18.3 Effect Size 485
16.4 Unequal Sample Sizes 421 18.4 Assumptions Involved in
16.5 Multiple Comparison Repeated-Measures Designs 486
Procedures 423 18.5 Advantages and Disadvantages of
16.6 Violations of Assumptions 431 Repeated-Measures Designs 487
16.7 The Size of the Effects 432 18.6 Writing Up the Results 488
16.8 Writing Up the Results 434 18.7 A Final Worked Example 489
16.9 A Final Worked Example 435 18.8 Summary 490
16.10 Seeing Statistics 438 18.9 A Quick Review 491
16.11 Summary 439 18.10 Exercises 492
16.12 A Quick Review 441
16.13 Exercises 441
Chapter 19
Chi-Square 495
Chapter 17
Factorial Analysis of 19.1 One Classification Variable: The
Variance 447 Chi-Square Goodness-of-Fit
Test 497
17.1 Factorial Designs 448 19.2 Two Classification Variables:
17.2 The Eysenck Study 450 Analysis of Contingency
17.3 Interactions 454 Tables 502
17.4 Simple Effects 456

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xii Contents

19.3 Possible Improvements on Chapter 21

Standard Chi-Square 505 Meta-Analysis 544
19.4 Chi-Square for Larger
21.1 Meta-Analysis 545
Contingency Tables 507
21.2 A Brief Review of Effect Size
19.5 The Problem of Small Expected
Measures 546
Frequencies 509
21.3 An Example—Child and
19.6 The Use of Chi-Square as a Test
Adolescent Depression 550
on Proportions 509
21.4 A Second Example—
19.7 Measures of Effect Size 511
Nicotine Gum and Smoking
19.8 A Final Worked Example 514
Cessation 555
19.9 A Second Example of Writing up
215 A Quick Review 559
Results 516
21.6 Exercises 559
19.10 Seeing Statistics 516
19.11 Summary 517 Appendix A
19.12 A Quick Review 518 Arithmetic Review 562
19.13 Exercises 519
Appendix B
Chapter 20 Symbols and Notation 569
Nonparametric and Distribution- Appendix C
Free Statistical Tests 524 Basic Statistical Formulae 572
20.1 Traditional Nonparametric
Appendix D
Tests 525
Data Set 576
20.2 Randomization Tests 534
20.3 Measures of Effect Size 536 Appendix E
20.4 Bootstrapping 537 Statistical Tables 580
20.5 Writing up the Results
of the Study of Maternal Glossary 598
Adaptation 537 References 604
20.6 Summary 538
20.7 A Quick Review 539 Answers to Exercises 610
20.8 Exercises 539 Index 635

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 Preface

Why Statistics?
Those of us who teach in this area hate to admit it, but statistics is seldom listed as
the most sought-after course on campus. A high percentage of students enroll because
their department has made this a required course. Under these conditions students
have a right to ask, “Why?” and there are at least two good answers to that question.
The traditional answer is that we want our students to learn a specific set of skills
about data analysis (including formulae and procedures) so that they can understand
the experimental literature and conduct analyses on their own data. The broader
answer, and one that applies to perhaps a larger number of students, is that some
more general facility with numbers and data in general is an important skill that has
lifelong and career-related value. Most of us, and not only those who do experimen-
tal work, frequently come across numerical data as part of our jobs, and some broad
understanding of how to deal with those data is an important and marketable skill.
It is my experience that students who have taken a course in statistics, even if they
think that they have forgotten every technique they ever learned, have an under-
standing of numerical data that puts them ahead of their colleagues. And in a world
increasingly dominated by quantitative data, that skill is more and more in demand.
Statistics is not really about numbers; it is about understanding our world.
­C ertainly an important activity for statisticians is to answer such questions as
whether cocaine taken in a novel context has more of an effect than cocaine taken
in a familiar context. But let’s not forget that what we are talking about here is drug
addiction or the effect of the environment on learning and memory. The results of
our experiment have a life beyond the somewhat limited world of the cognitive or
behavioral scientist. And let’s also remember that the numbers that most people see
do not relate to tightly controlled experiments, but to the implications of a traffic
study for the development of a shopping center, the density of residential housing and
its impact on the local school budget, and a marketing survey for a new product. All
of these examples involve many of the basic statistical concepts covered in this book.

Why This Text?

Enough preaching about the value of a course in statistics. Presumably the instruc-
tor was convinced before he or she started reading, and I hope that students have
become at least a bit more open minded. But the question remains, why should you
use this book instead of another of the many available texts? Part of the answer comes
down to the matter of style. I have deliberately set out to make this book both inter-
esting and useful for students and instructors. It is written in an informal style, every
xiii

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xiv Preface

example is put in the context of an investigation that one might reasonably conduct,
and almost all of the examples are taken from the published literature. It does not
make much sense to ask people to learn a series of statistical procedures without sup-
plying examples of situations in which those techniques would actually be applied.
This text is designed for an introductory statistics course in psychology, education,
and other behavioral sciences. It does not presuppose a background in mathematics
beyond high-school algebra, and it emphasizes the logic of statistical procedures rather
than their derivation.
Over the past 25 years the world of data analysis has changed dramatically.
Whereas we once sat down with a calculator and entered data by hand to solve equa-
tions, we are now much more likely to use a statistical package running on a desktop
computer. In fact, for some purposes we are likely to be using an online program written
in Java or some similar language that we download free of charge from the Internet. (I
sometimes use an app downloaded to my iPhone.) As the mechanics of doing statistics
have changed, so too must our approach to teaching statistical procedures. While we
cannot, and should not, forego all reference to formulae and computations, it is time
that we relaxed our emphasis on them. And by relaxing the emphasis on computation,
we free up the time to increase the emphasis on interpretation. That is what this book
tries to do. It moves away from simply declaring group differences to be significant or not
significant toward an explanation of what such differences mean relative to the purpose
behind the experiment. I like to think of it as moving toward an analysis of data and
away from an analysis of numbers. It becomes less important to concentrate on whether
there is a difference between two groups than to understand what that difference means.
In the process of moving away from a calculator toward a computer, I have ­altered
my approach to formulae. In the past I often gave a definitional formula, but then
immediately jumped to a computational one. But if I have to worry less about computa-
tion, and more about understanding, then I am able to revert to the use of definitional
formulae. It is my hope that this will make students’ lives a bit easier. Beyond that, in
this edition I spend considerably more time on computer solutions, in part because see-
ing how a computer would solve the problem can actually make it easier to understand
what is going on. That is not always true, but it is true enough to suggest the impor-
tance of being able to run a computer program to come to an answer. (And then chang-
ing things slightly, rerunning the program, and looking at what happens.)

Unique Features
Several features of this book set it apart from other books written for the same audi-
ence. One of these was just noted: the use of examples from the research literature.
I have attempted to choose studies that address problems of interest to students.
Examples include the effect of context on heroin overdose, the relationship between
daily stress and psychological symptoms, variables influencing course evaluations,
the effect of early parental death on children’s feelings of vulnerability, and variables
controlling how memory changes as a function of age. I want students to have some
involvement in the questions being asked, and I want to illustrate that statistical
analyses involve more than just applying a few equations.
In most chapters a section is devoted to an example using SPSS and R. Readers
have suggested that I concentrate most on R and less on SPSS. R is becoming a stan-
dard of computing, and is a free package that is constantly under development. SPSS

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 Preface xv

is a commercial package for which many colleges and universities have a license. R is
a bit more difficult to learn, but it really is becoming the package of the future. And
being free is nothing to sneer at. My purpose is to familiarize students with the form
of computer printouts and the kinds of information they contain. I am not trying
to make students an expert on statistical packages, but I am trying to give them the
information they need to make modifications to the code and do things on their own.
In addition, I use R, in particular, to illustrate statistical concepts visually.
But if students are going to be using these computer packages, I would hate
to have them buy an SPSS manual or an R textbook, just to do their work. I have
two SPSS manuals on the Web and encourage students to go to them. They are not
as complete as a printed book would be, but they are more than sufficient to allow
students to work with SPSS. I recommend the shorter manual, but the longer one
is there if additional information is needed. Similarly I have presented chapter by
­chapter Web documents on the use of R, and students should be able to follow along
with those; again modifying code to do their own analyses.
Data files for all of the examples and exercises used in the text are available
on a website that I maintain for this book. The basic URL for that site is www.uvm
.edu/~dhowell/fundamentals9/index.html. A link at that site will take you to the
data. These files are formatted in ASCII, so that they can be read by virtually any sta-
tistical program. (I also supply copies of data files formulated specifically for SPSS.)
The variable names appear on the first line and can be directly imported to your
software. The data can be saved to your computer simply by selecting your browser’s
Save option. The availability of these files makes it easy for students and instructors
to incorporate any statistical package with the text.
A Student Manual is also available at the previously mentioned website. It pro-
vides complete solutions for half the exercises. This supplements the short answers
to those questions at the back of the book. I have included answers only to the odd-
numbered questions because many instructors prefer to assign problems (or exam
questions) on material that does not have an answer in the back of the book or the
Student Solution Handbook. (I am very much aware that this does annoy students,
from whom I sometimes receive unhappy mail messages, but it is a balance between
the needs of students and the desires of the instructors.) I make available to instruc-
tors the answers to all of the questions. Those answers frequently come with com-
ments such as “In class you might point out …” or “The reason why I asked this
question is to get at …” As I read through them in creating this edition, I realized
that many, though not all, of those comments would also be useful to students. So
I have included many of them in the Student Manual as well. Some of them may
appear unhelpful or out of context, but I think most of them are worth reading.
On my Web pages I have also included many links to other sites, where you
can find good examples, small programs to demonstrate statistical techniques, a more
extensive glossary, and so on. People have devoted a great deal of time to making
material available over the Internet, and it is very worthwhile to use that material.

Why a New Edition?

When an author comes out with a new edition, I think that it is fair to ask what was
wrong with the old one, other than the fact that it is widely available in the used
book market. Normally I design a new edition to incorporate changes that are going

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xvi Preface

on in the field and to remove things that are no longer needed. And, despite what
many people think, there is a lot of new work going on. But in this edition and the
previous one I have taken a different approach. While I have added some new mate-
rial, the major effort has been to read the book as a new student would, and try to find
ways to clarify and repeat concepts. For example, I know that the Y axis is the verti-
cal one, but most people don’t, and telling them once is not enough. So I often write
something like “On the Y (vertical) axis …” And when you start looking at a book
that way, you find many places for clarification—especially because I have a wife
who has spent most of her life in secondary education and knows more about peda-
gogy than I do. (She actually read every chapter and made many fruitful suggestions.)
I have also begun each chapter with a list of concepts that will be important in the
chapter, in hopes that if you aren’t sure what they are you will review them.
Where necessary I have inserted important comments in boxes to pull several
points together, to highlight material that you really need to understand, or to clarify
difficult concepts. I have also inserted short biographies of important statisticians.
Especially in the first half of the 20th century there were many interesting (and can-
tankerous) people in the field and they are worth meeting. Next, I have removed the
very brief and weak chapter summaries and replaced them with much more complete
ones. My goal was to condense the chapter into a few paragraphs, and you will do
well to spend some time on them. A while back I was reading a programming text
on Java and came across an author who inserted simple questions, with answers, at
the end of each chapter. I discovered that I learned a lot from those simple questions,
so I have followed his lead in this edition. The questions are intended to focus your
attention on many of the important points in the chapter. I hope that they are useful.
An important feature of this book is the continued increase in emphasis on mea-
sures of effect size. Statistics in the behavioral sciences are rapidly shifting away from
compete dependence on a statement of statistical significance and toward measures
that tell you more about how large, and how important, a finding is. This has been
long overdue, and is reflected in changes that I continue to make to the text. Not only
is this is in line with trends in the field, but it is also important because it causes the
student, and the researcher, to think carefully about what a result means. In present-
ing effect size measures I have tried to convey the idea that the writer is trying to tell
the reader what the study found, and there are different ways of accomplishing that
goal. In some situations it is sufficient to talk about the difference between means or
proportions. In other situations a standardized measure, such as Cohen’s d, is helpful.
I have stayed away from correlation-based measures as much as I reasonably can
because I don’t think that they tell the reader much of what he or she wants to know.
One of the changes taking place in statistics is the movement toward what are
called “resampling statistics.” Because of the enormous speed of even a simple desk-
top computer, it is possible to look at outcomes in ways that we could think about
before but never really do. One advantage of these procedures is that they call for
many fewer assumptions about the data. In some ways they are like the more tra-
ditional nonparametric procedures that we have had for years, but more powerful.
I have revised the chapter on traditional nonparametric statistics to move almost
completely away from hand calculation, and used the freed-up space to introduce
resampling. The nice thing is that once I illustrate resampling techniques for one
kind of analysis, the student can readily see how some sort of modification of that
approach could apply to other experimental designs.

Copyright 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 Preface xvii

I have maintained from earlier editions a section labeled “Seeing Statistics.”

These sections are built around a set of Java applets, written by Gary McClelland
at the University of Colorado. These allow the students to illustrate for themselves
many of the concepts that are discussed in the book. Students can open these applets,
change parameters, and see what happens to the result. A nice illustration of this
is the applet illustrating the influence of heterogeneous subsamples in a correlation
problem. See Chapter 9, p. 217. These applets are available directly from my website
referred to earlier.
An important addition to this edition is the inclusion of a chapter on meta-
analysis. Meta-analysis is an analysis of multiple studies at the same time. There have
been many research studies on the treatment of depression, for example. A meta-ana-
lytic study of depression would bring all of those studies together and attempt to draw
conclusions on the basis of their similar or differing findings. The current emphasis
on evidence-based medicine is an excellent example. If I am to be treated for cancer,
for example, I want that treatment to be based on more than the most recent study
that came out last week or on my oncologist’s favorite study. What we really have
here is the extension of the behavioral science’s emphasis on effect sizes along with
statistical significance. This inclusion of meta-analysis of multiple studies probably
would not have appeared in any introductory statistics text 20 years ago.
In addition to the features already described, the website linked to this book
through the publisher’s pages (there is a link on my pages) contains a number of other
elements that should be helpful to students. These include a Statistical Tutor, which is
a set of multiple-choice questions covering the major topics in the chapter. Whenever
a student selects an incorrect answer, a box appears explaining the material and helping
the student to see what the correct answer should be. I did not write those questions,
but I think that they are very well done. There are also links to additional resources, a
review of basic arithmetic, and links to other examples and additional material.

Organization and Coverage

This section is meant primarily for instructors, because frequent reference is made to
terms that students cannot yet be expected to know. Students may wish to skip to the
next section.

■■ The first seven chapters of the book are devoted to standard descriptive statistics,
including ways of displaying data, measures of central tendency and variability, the
normal distribution, and those aspects of probability that are directly applicable to
what follows.
■■ Chapter 8 on hypothesis testing and sampling distributions serves as a nontechnical
introduction to inferential statistics. That chapter was specifically designed to allow
students to examine the underlying logic of hypothesis testing without simultane-
ously being concerned with learning a set of formulae and the intricacies of a statis-
tical test.
■■ Chapters 9, 10, and 11 deal with correlation and regression, including multiple
regression.
■■ Chapters 12–14 are devoted to tests on means, primarily t tests.

Copyright 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
xviii Preface

■■ Chapter 15 is concerned with power and its calculation and serves as an easily
­understood and practical approach to that topic.
■■ Chapters 16–18 are concerned with the analysis of variance. I have included mate-
rial on simple repeated-measures designs, but have stopped short of covering mixed
designs. These chapters include consideration of basic multiple comparison proce-
dures by way of Fisher’s protected t, which not only is an easily understood statistic
but has also been shown to be well behaved, under limited conditions, with respect
to both power and error rates. At the request of several users of the earlier editions,
I have included treatment of the Bonferroni test, which does a very commendable
job of controlling error rates, while not sacrificing much in the way of power when
used judiciously. Also included are measures of magnitude of effect and effect size,
a fairly extensive coverage of interactions, and procedures for testing simple effects.
The effect size material, in particular, is considerably expanded from earlier editions.
■■ Chapter 19 deals with the chi-square test, although that material could very easily
be covered at an earlier point if desired.
■■ Chapter 20 covers the most prominent distribution-free tests, including resampling
statistics.
■■ Chapter 21 was a completely new chapter in the last edition. It deals with meta-
analysis. Along with an increased emphasis on effect sizes for individual studies,
meta-analysis takes us in the direction of combining many similar studies though the
use of those effect sizes. This field is becoming much more important, and follows
in the footsteps of those in medicine who espouse what is called Evidence Based
Medicine. If you are going to be treated for cancer, wouldn’t you like that ­treatment
to be based on a solid analysis of all of the literature surrounding your form of
­cancer? The same is true for our interests in the behavioral sciences.
Not every course would be expected to cover all these chapters, and several (most
notably multiple regression, power, and distribution-free statistical methods) can be
omitted or reordered without disrupting the flow of the material. (I cover chi-square
early in my courses, but it is late in the text on the advice of reviewers.)

MindTap for Howell’s Fundamental Statistics for the

Behavioral Sciences
MindTap is a personalized teaching experience with relevant assignments that guide
students to analyze, apply, and improve thinking, allowing you to measure skills and
outcomes with ease.

■■ Personalized Teaching: Becomes yours with a Learning Path that is built with key
student objectives. Control what students see and when they see it. Use it as-is or
match to your syllabus exactly—hide, rearrange, add and create your own content.
■■ Guide Students: A unique learning path of relevant readings, multimedia, and
activities that move students up the learning taxonomy from basic knowledge and
comprehension to analysis and application.

Copyright 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 Preface xix

■■ Promote Better Outcomes: Empower instructors and motivate students with analyt-
ics and reports that provide a snapshot of class progress, time in course, engagement
and completion rates.

Supplements
Online Instructor’s Manual with Test Bank and Electronic Lecture Notes includes
the complete answers to exercises, suggestions on different ways to present the mate-
rial and engage the students’ attention, additional examples that can be used to
supplement the text for lecture purposes, Internet links to additional resources, and
added material chosen by the author, David Howell. Also included are electronic
transparencies for use as lecture notes or worksheets.

Acknowledgments
Many people have played an important role in the development of this book. My
product team, was supportive of this revision, including Product Manager, Tim
Matray; Product Assistant, Adrienne McCrory; Content Developer, Tangelique
­Williams-Grayer; and Lumina Program Manager, Kailash Rawat. Diane Giombetti
Clue did an excellent job of editing of the manuscript and was always supportive on
those few occasions when I insisted that quaint spellings and my positioning of prep-
ositions were better than the ones preferred by style manuals. My daughter, Lynda,
did extensive work on aligning and formatting the Instructor and Student manuals
and spotting the occasional error.
A number of reviewers made many helpful suggestions in earlier editions,
especially Dr. Kevin J. Apple (Ohio University), Eryl Bassett (University of Kent
at Canterbury), Drake Bradley (Bates College), Deborah M. Clauson (Catholic
University of America), Jose M. Cortina (Michigan State University), Gary B.
Forbach (Washburn University), Edward Johnson (University of North Carolina),
Dennis Jowaisas (Oklahoma City University), David J. Mostofsky (Boston
University), Maureen Powers (Vanderbilt University), David R. Owen (Brooklyn
College CUNY), D ­ ennis Roberts (Pennsylvania State University), Steven Rogelberg
(Bowling Green State University), Deborah J. Runsey (Kansas State University),
Robert Schutz ­(University of British Columbia), N. Clayton Silver (University of
Nevada), Patrick A. Vitale (University of South Dakota), Bruce H. Wade (Spelman
College), ­Robert Williams (Gallaudet University), Eleanor Willemsen (Santa Clara
University), Pamela Z­ appardino (University of Rhode Island), and Dominic Zerbolio
(University of Missouri–St. Louis). For years Dr. Karl Wuensch (East Carolina
University) has filled pages with suggestions, disagreements, and valuable advice. He
deserves special recognition, as does Dr. Kathleen Bloom (University of Waterloo)
and Joan Foster (Simon Fraser University). Gary McClelland, at the University of
Colorado, graciously allowed me to use some of his Java applets, and was willing to
modify them when necessary to meet my needs.
I want to thank all of those users (instructors and students alike) who have
written me with suggestions and who have pointed out errors. I don’t have the space

Copyright 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
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