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19BY701 – Biology for Engineers

Internal Assessment - I Question Bank
Part A
1. Classify organisms with examples and list their difference.
Types of Organisms
 Living Things
 Non Living Things
Living Things Non-Living Things

They possess life. They do not possess life.

Living things are capable of giving birth to

Non-living things do not reproduce.
their young ones.

They respire and the exchange of gases takes

Non-living things do not respire.
place in their cells.

Example: Humans, animals, plants, insects. Example: Rock, pen, buildings, gadgets.

2. Mention the characteristics of living organisms.

3. Give reason: If cars can move then why are they not categorized as living organisms?
Cars can move from one place to another. However, a human is required to move the car. It
cannot move on its own. Besides that, it does not possess any characteristics of organisms.
We all know that for an entity to be categorized as a living organism it should possess all the
characteristics of living organisms. Thus, a car is a non-living thing.

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4. Classify Cells.

Prokaryotic
• Cell that do not have membrane-
bound organelles
Eukaryotic
• Cell that have membrane-bound
organelles

5. Differentiate the Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic cells

Prokaryotes Eukaryotes
Type of Cell Always unicellular Unicellular and multi-cellular
Cell size Ranges in size from 0.2 μm – 2.0 Size ranges from 10 μm –
μm in diameter 100 μm in diameter
Cell wall Usually present; chemically When present, chemically
complex in nature simple in nature
Nucleus Absent. Instead, they have Present
a nucleoid region in the cell
Ribosomes Present. Smaller in size and Present. Comparatively
spherical in shape larger in size and linear in
shape
DNA arrangement Circular Linear
Mitochondria Absent Present
Cytoplasm Present, but cell organelles Present, cell organelles
absent present
Endoplasmic reticulum Absent Present
Plasmids Present Very rarely found in
eukaryotes
Ribosome Small ribosomes Large ribosomes
Lysosome Lysosomes and centrosomes are Lysosomes and centrosomes
absent are present
Cell division Through binary fission Through mitosis
Flagella The flagella are smaller in size The flagella are larger in size
Reproduction Asexual Both asexual and sexual
Example Bacteria and Archaea Plant and Animal cell

6. List few important functions of carbohydrates.

 Energy production
 Energy storage
 Promoting digestive health
 Building macromolecules
 Role in lipid metabolism
 Role as flavouring agent and sweeteners

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7. Mention the important functions of lipids.

Lipids play a critical role in our bodies.
They are a component of the cell membrane’s structure.
They help in the production of hormones and provide energy to our bodies.
They help in appropriate meal digestion and absorption.
They play a vital function in signalling as well.

8. Differentiate proteins and enzyme

Though both enzymes and proteins are made up of amino acids. But the basic difference
between them is that proteins are involved in the formation of structures, transportation and
regulation of biological processes. Enzymes act as biological catalysts to speed up the
chemical reactions in the body

9. Difference between Gene and Chromosome

Character Gene Chromosome
Genes are important segment of DNA
Chromosomes are pack of cells which
Definition which contains code of specific
contain genes inside human body.
proteins.
It is located as packed structure of
Location It is located in the chromosome. DNA with proteins inside cells f a
person.
Chromosomes are composed of
Genes are composed of nucleic acids
Composition nucleic acids like RNA, DNA or
like DNA or RNA.
Histones.
Visibility It is not visible under the microscope. It is visible under the microscope.
Core Gene is a core on a chromosome. A chromosome includes many genes.
The transformation of chromosomes
are relatively large. This leads to the
The transformation of genes are small.
Transformation abnormalities such as duplication,
This leads to insertion and deletions.
deletions, rearrangements, inversion
of genes.

10. How to measure the growth in plants?

The growth of the plant can be measured by a horizontal microscope and an auxanometer
instrument. An auxanometer is an instrument used for measuring the increase of growth in
plants.

11. Mention the factors affecting Photosynthesis

Photosynthesis process requires several factors such as:
 Light Intensity
 The concentration of CO2
 Temperature
 Water
 Pollution

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12. List the different modes of nutrition

Modes of
Nutrition

Autotrophic Heterotrophic

Parasitic Insectivorous Saprophytic Symbiotic

Nutrition Nutrition Nutrition Nutrition

Part B & C
1. With a neat Sketch, Explain the Structure and Functions of Eukaryotic Cell
Organelles
CELL THEORY
The cell theory states that:
 All living things are made of one or more cells.
 Cells are the basic unit of structure and function in living things.
 All cells come from other cells.
Types of Cells

Prokaryotic
• Cell that do not have membrane-
bound organelles
Eukaryotic
• Cell that have membrane-bound
organelles
EUKARYOTIC CELLS
Cells that contain organelles which are held together by membranes
Examples include plant and animal cells.
ORGANELLES
CYTOPLASMIC MEMBRANE
 It is also called plasma membrane or cell membrane.
 The plasma membrane is a semi-permeable membrane that separates the inside of a
cell from the outside.
Structure and Composition:

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In eukaryotic cells, the plasma membrane consists of proteins, carbohydrates and two layers
of phospholipids (i.e. lipid with a phosphate group). These phospholipids are arranged as
follows:
 The polar, hydrophilic (water-loving) heads face the outside and inside of the cell. These heads
interact with the aqueous environment outside and within a cell.

 The non-polar, hydrophobic (water-repelling) tails are sandwiched between the heads and
are protected from the aqueous environments.
Scientists Singer and Nicolson described the structure of the phospholipid bilayer as the ‘Fluid
Mosaic Model’. The reason is that the bi-layer looks like a mosaic and has a semi-fluid nature
that allows lateral movement of proteins within the bilayer.

Functions
 The plasma membrane is selectively permeable i.e. it allows only selected substances
to pass through.
 It protects the cells from shock and injuries.
 The fluid nature of the membrane allows the interaction of molecules within the
membrane. It is also important for secretion, cell growth, and division etc.
 It allows transport of molecules across the membrane. This transport can be of two
types:

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o Active transport – This transport occurs against the concentration gradient and
therefore, requires energy. It also needs carrier proteins and is a highly selective
process.
o Passive transport – This transport occurs along the concentration gradient and
therefore, does not require energy. Thus, it does not need carrier proteins and
is not selective.
CELL WALL
The cell wall is a non-living, rigid structure outside the plasma membrane in plant cells and
fungi. It is absent in Eukaryotic cells of animals.
Functions
 Provides shape to the cell.
 Helps in cell-cell interaction.
 Protects the cell from injury, undesirable molecules and pathogens.

ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM (ER)

It is a network of small, tubular structures. It divides the space inside of Eukaryotic cells into
two parts – luminal (inside ER) and extra-luminal (cytoplasm).

Two Types

Smooth Endoplasmic Rough Endoplasmic

Reticulum (SER) Reticulum (RER)
Smooth due to lack Rough due to the
of ribosomes presence of
Site of lipid synthesis ribosomes
Site of protein
synthesis.

Functions
 SER is involved in lipid synthesis and RER is involved in protein synthesis.
 RER helps in folding proteins and transports it to the Golgi apparatus in vesicles.

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GOLGI APPARATUS
It is named after the scientist who discovered it, Camillo Golgi. Golgi is made of many flat, disc-
shaped structures called cisternae. It is present in all eukaryotic cells except human red blood
cells and sieve cells of plants.

Structure: The cisternae are arranged in parallel and concentrically near the nucleus as follows:
 Cis face (forming face) – It faces the plasma membrane and receives secreted material
in vesicles.
 Trans face (maturing face) – It faces the nucleus and releases the received material into
the cell.
Functions
 An important site for packaging material within the cell.
 Proteins are modified in the Golgi.
 An important site for the formation of glycolipids (i.e. lipids with carbohydrate) and
glycoproteins (i.e. proteins with carbohydrates).
RIBOSOMES
These structures are not bound by a membrane. Ribosomes are also called ‘Protein factories’
since they are the main site of protein synthesis.

Structure: They are made of ribonucleic acids and proteins. Eukaryotic ribosomes are of the
80S type, with 60S (large subunit) and 40S (small subunit).
Functions: A Major site for synthesis of proteins and polypeptides (chain of amino acids).
MITOCHONDRIA
They are membrane-bound organelles, also known as ‘powerhouses of the cell’.

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Structure: It has two membranes – outer and inner. The outer membrane forms a continuous
boundary around the mitochondria. The inner membrane is semi-permeable and divided into
folds called ‘cristae’. The membranes divide the lumen of the mitochondria into an inner and
outer compartment. The inner compartment is called matrix and outer compartment forms
the intermembrane space.
Functions
 They produce energy (ATP) and therefore are called the ‘powerhouse of the cell’.
 Helps in regulating cell metabolism.
 Mitochondria possess their own DNA, RNA and components required for protein
synthesis.
LYSOSOMES
They are membrane-bound vesicles formed in the Golgi apparatus. Lysosomes are also called
‘suicidal bags’ since they are rich in hydrolytic enzymes such as lipases, proteases,
carbohydrates etc. These enzymes are optimally active at acidic pH (less than 7).
Function: The main function of lysosomes is to digest lipids, proteins, carbohydrates and
nucleic acids.
NUCLEUS
Nucleus is the main organelle of a cell. It is a double membrane structure with all the genetic
information. Therefore, it is also called the ‘brain’ of a cell. The nucleus is found in all
eukaryotic cells except human RBCs and sieve cells of plants.

Structure: A nucleus has the following parts:

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Nuclear envelope – It is a double membrane structure that surrounds the nucleus. The outer
membrane is continuous with the endoplasmic reticulum. The inner membrane has small
pores called ‘nuclear pores’.
Nucleoplasm – It is the fluid material in the nucleus that contains the nucleolus and chromatin.
Nucleolus – Nucleoli are not membrane-bound and are active sites for ribosomal RNA
synthesis.
Chromatin – It consists of DNA and proteins called ‘histones’. The DNA is organised into
chromosomes. Chromosomes have certain constriction sites called ‘centromeres’. Based on
the position of the centromere, they can be divided as follows:
Metacentric – With centromere in the centre and having equal chromosome arms.
Sub-metacentric – Centromere is slightly off-centre creating one short and one long arm.
Acrocentric – Centromere is extremely off-centre with one very long and one very short
chromosome arm.
Telocentric – Centromere is placed at one end of the chromosome. Humans do not possess
telocentric chromosomes.
Functions
 It stores genetic information (in the form of DNA) necessary for development and
reproduction.
 It contains all information necessary for protein synthesis and cellular functions.
CYTOSKELETON
It is the filamentous network present in the cytoplasm of a cell.
Function: It provides mechanical support, maintains the shape of the cell and helps in motility.
CILIA AND FLAGELLA
They are both responsible for the movement of a cell.

Short, hair-like structures

There are many cilia per cell
Cilia Cover the entire surface of a cell
Rowing movement

Long structures

Flagella There are fewer flagella per cell

Are present at one end of a cell
Up and down movement

PLASTIDS
They are double membrane organelles found in plant cells. They contain pigments and are of
three types:
Chloroplasts – They contain chlorophyll and are involved in photosynthesis, where light
energy is converted to chemical energy. Chloroplasts contain compartments called stroma

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and grana. Grana contains structures called thylakoids that contain chlorophyll. Stroma
contains enzymes needed for carbohydrate and protein synthesis.
Chromoplasts – These give plants yellow, red or orange colours because they contain
pigments like carotene.
Leucoplasts – These are colourless plastids that store either carbohydrates (Amyloplasts), oils
and fats (Elaioplasts) or proteins (Aleuroplasts).

2. Explain about the general classification of Carbohydrates, sources and its

importance
CARBOHYDRATES
Carbohydrates are a vast group of naturally occurring organic compounds composed of
Carbon, Hydrogen, and Oxygen in the ratio 1:2:1, having the general chemical formula
Cx(H2O)y. Due to their sweet taste, they are also called sugars.
Eg., Cane sugar, glucose, starch, etc.,
Sources of Carbohydrates
Carbohydrate-rich food items are:
Plant-based products such as grains, fruits like banana, sapota, pineapple, grapes, vegetables
such as potato, sweet potato, beetroot, beans, tapioca, etc., are the raw materials for making
table sugar. Animal-based products such as honey, milk and milk products.
Carbohydrates can be classified into two:
 Nutritional classification
 Structural classification.
Nutritional Classification of Carbohydrates
Different types of carbohydrates contribute to our nutrition at different levels:
Simple carbohydrates: These are easiest to digest and provide quick energy. Fruits like
banana, pineapple, berries, grapes, oranges, and other items like honey, glucose, and milk are
sources of simple carbs.
Starchy carbohydrates: These are a little more complex than simple carbs and take longer to
digest. Starchy carbs are grains like wheat, rice, jowar, vegetables such as potato, sweet
potato, etc.
Fibrous carbohydrates: Dietary fibers are fibrous carbohydrates, also known as roughage.
These fibrous carbs take very long to convert to simple sugars through digestion. They slow
down the conversion of glucose to glycogen and the fibers are not digested by human
enzymes. They also contribute significantly towards bulking up undigested waste materials
and maintaining the gut’s healthy bacteria. Green leafy vegetables, pumpkin, carrots,
tomatoes, cabbage, broccoli, beans are some sources of fibrous carbohydrates. Grains like
oats are also rich in dietary fibers.
Complex carbohydrates: These are complex as the name suggests. Food items like whole
grains, pasta, brown rice, red rice, and oats are a few examples of complex carbs.
Carbohydrates Structure
 Chemically carbohydrates are polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones.
 These are the chemical substances obtained upon hydrolysis of carbohydrates.

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 The basic carbohydrates elements: carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, but some even
contain nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulphur.
 Further, carbs exist as polymers of simple units (‘saccharon’).
 The number of simple units and their polymerization differs in different types of
carbohydrates.
Based on the presence of carbohydrates monomer, the carbs are classified as:
 Monosaccharides
 Disaccharides
 Oligosaccharides
 Polysaccharides

1. Monosaccharides: These are referred to as simple sugars. Chemically, they can be aldoses
and ketoses with two or more hydroxyl groups. The backbone of the most common
monosaccharides is an unbranched carbon chain where a single bond joins all carbon atoms.
One carbonyl group is attached to the terminal carbon atom. If this carbonyl group is an
aldehyde, then that type of monosaccharide is known as aldose. If the carbonyl group is a
ketone, the monosaccharide type becomes ketose.
Depending on the number of carbon atoms in the monosaccharides, they are classified as:
a. Triose: number of carbon atoms in these monosaccharides is 3 and the two simplest
trioses are glyceraldehyde and aldotriose.
b. Tetrose: when the number of carbon atoms in the backbone chain are 4, such a
monosaccharide becomes tetrose. Example: erythrose.
c. Pentose: if the carbon atoms in the backbone chain are 5, the monosaccharide is
referred to as pentose. Examples: ribose and deoxyribose.
d. Hexose: when 6 carbon atoms are present in the backbone chain of a monosaccharide,
it is known as hexose. Examples: glucose and fructose

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e. Heptose: monosaccharides with 7 carbon atoms in their backbone chains are known as
heptoses. Example: sedoheptulose.
Thus, a monosaccharide can be aldotriose or ketotriose, aldohexose or ketohexose and so on.
2. Disaccharides: When a carbohydrate contains two units of monosaccharides, it is called a
disaccharide. The two monosaccharide units are joined covalently with an O-glycosidic bond.
Common examples of disaccharides are maltose, sucrose, and lactose. Maltose has two
glucose units; lactose has one unit of glucose and one unit of galactose whereas sucrose has
glucose units and fructose. Sucrose is the common table sugar.
3. Oligosaccharides: These are carbs with three to ten monomeric units and are thus short
polymers. Few rich sources of plant oligosaccharides are burdock, chicory, Jerusalem
artichoke, onions, celery, etc.
4. Polysaccharides: These are polymers where more than ten monosaccharide units are
linked with each other. They are commonly called glycans and are high molecular weight
macromolecules. They differ like the monomeric units, length of their chains, types of bonds
linking the chains, and degree of branching. Homopolysaccharides have a single monomer
whereas heteropolysaccharides have two or more different types of monomers. Starch,
glycogen, cellulose, chitin are examples of homopolysaccharides. Bacterial cell envelopes and
extracellular matrices in animals have many heteropolysaccharides in them.
Carbohydrates Function

Carbohydrates play an important role in the body and perform several functions. Some of the
functions of carbs are:
Energy production: Carbohydrates provide energy to the body. Except for dietary fibres, other
types of carbs get digested and converted into glucose. Each cell takes up glucose from the
blood and it gets broken down further in cellular respiration, releasing energy in the form of
ATP. These ATP molecules are then used for various biological functions.
Energy storage: Carbohydrates provide stored energy. Excess glucose converted into
glycogen and gets stored in the liver and muscles. Glycogen gets converted into glucose to
provide energy and thus helps maintain a constant blood glucose level. Glycogen also acts as
a reserve of energy. In plants, excess glucose gets converted into starch and is stored in
various parts.

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Promoting digestive health: Unlike starch and glucose, dietary fibres are not broken down
into glucose. They remain undigested. The dietary fibres make the bulk of the stools and help
bowel movements.
Building macromolecules: Most of the absorbed glucose is used for energy production. Some
amount is converted into ribose and deoxyribose. These sugars are the building blocks of
other macromolecules such as DNA, RNA and ATP. Glucose is also utilized to make NADPH,
which acts as an antioxidant.
Role in lipid metabolism: A rise in blood glucose level prevents lipid usage by the body for
energy production. Thus, it prevents fat loss and ketosis in the body.
Role as flavouring agent and sweeteners: Carbs are naturally sweet. They are used as
sweeteners and flavour enhancers in various food products.
Deficiency of Carbohydrates
The abundance of carbs in nature and the capacity of the human body to store extra carbs
make the carbohydrate deficiency rare. However, diets low in carbs lead to moderate
deficiency and may be various factors such as diabetic ketosis, low-carb diets, etc. A
carbohydrate-deficient diet shows headaches, nausea, fatigue, weakness, difficulty in
concentrating, bad breath, constipation, and vitamin and mineral deficiencies.
Prolonged Deficiency of Carbohydrates leads to the following ailments or health issues:
Acidosis: The body shifts from carbohydrates to lipids for energy production, thus increasing
lipolysis. Increased lipolysis leads to increased production of ketoacids. Ketoacids are
responsible for increased acidity of the blood and other body fluids, which, in turn, cause
harmful and irreversible damage to body tissues.
Ketosis: During prolonged carbohydrate starvation, the body breaks down fatty acids and
amino acids for energy production. During this breakdown, it produces ketone bodies.
Excessive formation of ketone bodies leads to ketosis, which has harmful effects on the body.
Hypoglycemia: Deficiency of carbs leads to low blood glucose level, a condition known as
hypoglycemia. Symptoms of hypoglycemia are dizziness, fatigue, distress, and delirium.
Constipation: Dietary fibres are an important component of our daily foods and they help bulk
up the stools. The absence of dietary fibres may lead to severe constipation.

3. Explain the Characteristics of Living Organisms with suitable examples

Characteristics of living organisms
NUTRITION
It is the process of taking in food.
All living beings require food for energy to perform different activities.
Food also helps in the growth and repair of the body.

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Nutrition

Autotroph Heterotroph
Two types of nutrition
Autotroph: Autotrophic nutrition is the mode of nutrition in which an organism prepares its
own food.
Blue-green algae and green plants follow the autotrophic mode of nutrition.
Heterotroph: The mode of nutrition in which an organism takes food from another organism
is called the Heterotrophic mode of nutrition.
Other than green plants and blue-green algae organisms show the heterotrophic mode of
nutrition.
GROWTH
Growth is a permanent and irreversible process. All living things grow, whereas nonliving
things do not grow.
The pattern of growth, however, is different in plants and animals.
EXCRETION
It is the process of removal of waste material from the body. Accumulation of waste material
inside the body is harmful to all living beings. Thus, it is removed from the body of animals in
the form of urine, sweat, and carbon dioxide. In the case of plants, carbon dioxide and water
vapours are removed from the pores present on the leaves.
REPRODUCTION
One of the most unique features or characteristics of life or living things that differentiate
them from non-living things.
Reproduction is the ability of all living organisms to produce young ones of their kind.
For example, a hen lays eggs, which hatch into chicks, which grow into hens or roosters. A dog
gives birth to puppies that grow into dogs or bitches. Similarly, the mango tree produces fruits
that bear seeds which give rise to new mango trees.

Reproduction

Asexual Sexual

Two Types of Reproduction

Asexual: Asexual reproduction refers to the type of reproduction in which only a single
organism gives rise to a new individual.

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Sexual: Sexual reproduction is a type of reproduction that involves the production of an

offspring by the fusion of male and female gametes.
RESPIRATION
It is the process of breathing in oxygen from the air and giving out carbon dioxide. Animals
and plants use oxygen to produce energy from the food consumed or produced by them.
Living beings utilize this energy to perform various activities.
MOVEMENT
Living things show movement i.e., moving from one place to another and this type of
movement is called locomotion. Animals move for two main reasons – in search of food and
to escape from enemies.
RESPONSE TO CHANGE
Anything which produces a response in an organism is called a stimulus.
Living things respond to change in their surroundings.
It is one of the important characteristics of living things that differentiate them from nonliving
things.
Example: In cold weather, we wear woolen clothes. If we touch something hot by mistake,
we respond quickly by withdrawing our hands. During drought roots of the plant grows
further downward in search of water.
LIFE CYCLE
Living things follow a life cycle.
They start their life from a single cell and follows the path of growth, reproduction, and death.
The life cycle of an organism may take a few hours, a few days, or hundreds of years to
complete.
The period during which an organism completes its life cycle is called the lifespan.
4. Explain about the Structure of Proteins, sources and its importance
PROTEINS
Proteins are complex biomolecules made up of many small units called amino acids. The
amino acids strands are twisted to form long chains. There are 20 amino acids common to
most proteins. The specific order of these amino acids determines the structure and function
of proteins. The long chains of amino acids then fold in peculiar ways, and a three-
dimensional structure is formed, which becomes the functional protein.
Thus, amino acids become the building blocks of proteins, and since many amino acids are
joined together, a protein molecule becomes quite large, hence called a macromolecule.
Structure of Proteins
Protein is made up of amino acids. Each amino acid is an organic molecule consisting of a
central carbon atom attached to an amino group, carboxyl group, hydrogen atom and a
variable side chain (R group). There are 20 amino acids common to most proteins and fewer
common ones.
In general, they are two types of protein molecules fibrous proteins and globular proteins.
Fibrous proteins are insoluble and elongated. Globular proteins are soluble and compact.
Fibrous and Globular proteins may comprise one or four types of protein structures and they
include primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary structure.

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Primary Structure: It is a specific sequence of amino acids. The order of amino acids bonded
together is detected by information stored in genes.
Secondary Structure: It is a three-dimensional form of a local segment of proteins. They are
formed by hydrogen bonds between the atoms along the backbone of the polypeptide chain.
Tertiary Structure: It is determined by R-groups. It is a three-dimensional shape of a protein.
Many numbers of tertiary structure fold to form Quaternary Structure.
Quaternary Structure: It is the arrangement of multiple folded protein subunits in a multi-
subunit complex.
Sources of Proteins

 Lean meat – Pork, beef and lamb

 Poultry – Chicken and eggs
 Fish and seafood – Prawns, crab, lobster, etc.
 Beans, pulses (also known as lentils)
 Mushrooms
 Nuts and seeds
 Dairy products – Milk, cheese, curd and yoghurt
 Soy products
Functions
Enzymes: Enzymes mostly carry out all numerous chemical reactions which take place within
a cell. They also help in regenerating and creating DNA molecules and carry out complex
processes.
Hormones: Proteins are involved in the creation of various types of hormones which help in
balancing the components of the body. For example hormones like insulin, which helps in

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regulating blood sugar and secretin. It is also involved in the digestion process and formation
of digestive juices.
Antibody: Antibody also known as an immunoglobulin. It is a type of protein which is majorly
used by the immune system to repair and heal the body from foreign bacteria. They often
work together with other immune cells to identify and separate the antigens from increasing
until the white blood cells destroy them completely.
Energy: Proteins are the major source of energy that helps in the movements of our body. It
is important to have the right amount of protein in order to convert it into energy. Protein,
when consumed in excess amounts, gets used to create fat and becomes part of the fat cells.
Aspect Functions Examples
Storage Legume Storage, albumin, and proteins. Supplies food during the early
stage of the seedling or
embryo.
Hormone Counterpart activities of different body Glucagon and Insulin.
Signalling parts.
Transport It transport substances throughout the body Haemoglobin.
through lump or blood cells.
Contraction To carry out muscle contraction. Myosin.
Digestive Breaks down nutrients present in the food Pepsin, Amylase, and Lipase
Enzyme into smaller portions so that it can be easily
absorbed
Deficiency of Proteins
Deficiency of proteins occurs when one does not get enough proteins from the diet to meet
the body’s requirements. Protein deficiency may lead to serious health complications. A
severe form of protein deficiency leads to a disease called Kwashiorkor. It is common in
Central Africa and South Asia, and 30% of children suffer. The general symptoms of
kwashiorkor are:
 Edema
 Fatty liver
 Fatigue
 Diarrhea
 Loss of muscle mass
 Stunted growth
 Irritability
 Change in colour and texture of skin and nails
 Flashy skin.
 Increased severity of infections
Kwashiorkor can be treated with increased intake of proteins and calories overall, especially
if treatment is started early.
5. Explain about the types of nucleic acids and its functions
NUCLEIC ACIDS
Nucleic acids are macromolecules present in all living cells, either in the free state or in
combination with other substances. These are long chains that are formed by end-to-end

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polymerisation of a large number of units called nucleotides joined by phosphodiester

bonds. “Nucleic acid” is the term used to describe specific large molecules in the cell.
Nucleic acids are of two types:
1. Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
2. Ribonucleic Acid (RNA)

DNA
DNA has a double-stranded structure helical structure formed from two polynucleotide
chains. Each of these chains is also helical in nature. The two helical chains which intertwine
with each other are held together by the hydrogen bonds between the paired nitrogen bases.
When the two helical chains intertwine, the hydrophobic nitrogen bases are on the inside
while the phosphate groups on the outside. This hydrogen bonding between complementary
bases on each strand provides a mechanism for the DNA replication and transmission of
genetic information. DNA is present only in eukaryotic animals.
RNA
Unlike DNA, RNA is a single-stranded nucleic acid polymer. It has four nucleotides namely
adenine, guanine, cytosine and uracil. During the process of DNA replication, RNA is the first
intermediary that is formed. Where DNA is quite stable and the ideal genetic material, RNA
is reactive in nature and is sensitive to oxidising agents. In DNA, the complementary base
pairing occurs between both the strands but in RNA, the base pairing occurs with bases
within the same strand. RNA is found as the genetic material in prokaryotes.
RNA are of different types depending upon their function:
Messenger RNA(mRNA): It helps to transfer the genetic information from the genes on the
DNA to the ribosomes.
Ribosomal RNA(rRNA): This RNA forms the structural components of the ribosome. They play
an active role in recognizing conserved portions of mRNAs and tRNAs. They also assist with
the catalysis of protein synthesis. In eukaryotes, rRNA genes are looped out of the main

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chromosomal fibres and coalesce in the presence of proteins to form a cell organelle called
the nucleolus. The nucleolus is where the rRNA genes are transcribed and the early assembly
of ribosomes takes place.
Transfer RNA( tRNA): t-RNA help to transfer amino acid residues from amino acid pool to the
site of proteins synthesis i.e ribosomes. Specific tRNAs exist for each of the 20 amino acids
that needed for protein synthesis. In a few cases, more than one tRNA for each amino acid
is present.
Functions of Nucleic Acids
Nucleic acids are responsible for the transmission of inherent characters from parent to
offspring.
They are responsible for the synthesis of protein in our body
DNA fingerprinting is a method used by forensic experts to determine paternity. It is also
used for the identification of criminals. It has also played a major role in studies regarding
biological evolution and genetics.

6. Explain about Plant Growth with neat sketches.

PLANT GROWTH
Growth is the fundamental and salient characteristic feature of all living organisms,
including plants. It is the irreversible, permanent increase in size, mass, volume, organ, or
part of an organism accomplished as a result of various metabolic reactions of the body.
Types of Plant Growth
The types of growth in plants can be based on different criteria. These are:
Based on the Sequence of Growth
 Primary Growth – The division is at the root and shoots apex.
 Secondary Growth – The lateral meristem or cambium helps increase the girth or
diameter of the plant.

Based on the Continuity of Growth

 Unlimited Growth – The growth of root and stem apex in plants.
 Limited Growth – The growth of leaves, flowers, and fruits after obtaining a certain
size.
Based on Growing Plant Organ (Morphogenesis)
 Vegetative Growth – The growth of vegetative parts like leaves, stems, and roots.

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 Reproductive Growth – The growth of flowers and other reproductive parts of

plants.
Characteristics of Growth in Plants
The following are the characteristic features of plant growth:
 It is indeterminate (occurs throughout life).
 It is localised.
 It is measurable.
 Meristems are involved in plant growth.
 At the cellular level, growth can be measured as the increase in the mass of
protoplasm.
Stages of Plant Growth
The different phases of growth are mentioned below:

 Meristematic phase of cell division is when active cell division increases the
numbers.
 Elongation phase is when the cells elongate by changing their size of vacuoles, the
mass of protoplasm, etc.
 Maturation or differentiation is the phase in which there is the distribution of
functionality to the newly formed cells.
Growth Rate
The growth rate is the increase in number per unit time (growth/time). There are two major
growth rates:
1. Arithmetic rate is followed in mitosis division in certain organs, where one of the two cells
formed differentiate and the other continues division.
2. Geometric rate is shown by various organisms, where both the daughter cells of cell
division undergo repeated cell division. The development of an embryo from a zygote is an
example of such growth.
Measurement of Growth in Plants
The rate of growth can be measured in various ways:
 The growth can be measured by a horizontal microscope and an auxanometer
instrument. An auxanometer is an instrument used for measuring the increase of
growth in plants.
 Bose developed an instrument called a crescograph for measuring growth. It
magnifies growth up to 1000010000 times. In the early 20th20th century, Sir
Jagadish Chandra Bose invented a device for measuring growth in plants known as a
crescograph.

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 The growth can also be measured by calculating an increase in cell number, weight,
volume, and diameter.

Factors Affecting Growth in Plants

The external and internal factors influence the growth of plants. They are mentioned below:
1. External factors needed for growth
a) Light – It is required for the synthesis of food. It also determines the root and shoots
growth. Variations in the intensity, quality, and duration of light affect seed germination and
flowering in different plants.
b) Temperature – A optimum temperature of 25–30∘C25–30∘C is required for plants’
normal and appropriate growth. The temperature above 45∘C45∘C hinders plant growth
due to excessive transpiration, denaturation of enzymes, and coagulation of protoplasm.
c) Water – It is the most important medium for all chemical reactions and physiological
processes. It is essential for photosynthesis, cell elongation, and maintenance of turgidity of
growing cells. Under conditions of water stress, plant growth completely stops.
d) Oxygen – It is required for cellular respiration in plants. This energy is used for various
activities of the cell and directly takes part in the growth processes.
e) Nutrients – The macro and micronutrients are essential raw materials for protoplasmic
synthesis and act as a source of energy. Growth stops when the nutrient supply becomes
limited.
f) Soil – Soil is a substrate in which plants grow. Soil provides support, nutrients, and a
network of water and air to the plant’s roots.
2. Internal factors needed for growth
a) Genetic Factors– These are internal factors. These are involved in the overall
maintenance of a plant.
b) Plant Growth Hormones or Regulators – The plant’s growth is controlled by some organic
compounds, which are present in minimal quantities. These compounds are called
phytohormones or plant growth regulators. Auxins, gibberellins and cytokinins are involved
in growth-promoting activities and thus are known as growth promoters. Abscisic acid is
responsible for growth-inhibiting activities and thus is known as a growth inhibitor. Ethylene
has mixed effects, i.e. it shows both promoting and inhibitory effects.
7. List the different modes of nutrition and explain each of them with example
NUTRITION

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The process by which the organisms obtain and utilize nutrients in various biological
activities is called Nutrition.
The Different Modes of Nutrition
The plants can obtain their food broadly by two modes namely:
Autotrophic: In the autotrophic mode of nutrition, green plants synthesize their own food
by the process of photosynthesis. Such plants are termed autotrophs.
Heterotrophic: On the other hand, the organisms which depend on plants or other
organisms for their food are termed heterotrophs and the mode of nutrition is
heterotrophic.
The heterotrophic mode of nutrition can be further divided into:
 Parasitic Nutrition
 Insectivorous Nutrition
 Saprophytic Nutrition
 Symbiotic Nutrition
Parasitic Nutrition
Some heterotrophic plants get their nutrition from other plants and animals. Such plants are
referred to as parasite plants. The parasite, however, does not help the host.
For eg., Cuscuta, Cassytha
Insectivorous Nutrition
Some plants, known as carnivorous or heterotrophic plants, have particular structural traits
that aid in the capture of insects. These plants digest the insects and get their nutrition by
secreting digestive fluids. These plants flourish on mineral-deficient soil.
For eg., Pitcher plant, Venus flytrap
Saprophytic Nutrition
Saprophytic plants obtain their food from dead and decaying plants and animals. By
secreting digestive fluids and absorbing nutrients, they disintegrate dead and rotting
materials.
For eg., mushrooms, moulds.
Symbiotic Nutrition
Symbiotic plants are those that have a tight relationship with another plant from a different
category. Both plants benefit from each other.
For eg., the association of fungi and trees.
8. Explain the Mechanism of how plants prepare its own food
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
Photosynthesis is a process by which phototrophs convert light energy into chemical energy,
which is later used to fuel cellular activities. The chemical energy is stored in the form of
sugars, which are created from water and carbon dioxide.
All green plants and a few other autotrophic organisms utilize photosynthesis to synthesize
nutrients by using carbon dioxide, water and sunlight. The by-product of the photosynthesis
process is oxygen.
Mechanism of Photosynthesis
Photosynthesis is the ultimate source of food on earth.

 It is also required for the release of oxygen.

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 The part of the spectrum that is used in photosynthesis has a wavelength between
400–700nm. It is called photosynthetically active radiation (PAR).
 Photosynthesis takes place in green parts of plants like leaves, stems, etc. The
mesophyll cells of leaves have many chloroplasts that contain a specialised light-
absorbing green pigment called chlorophyll pigments.
 Chloroplast is a double membrane-enclosed organelle.
 Photosynthesis is a complicated redox process. In this process, oxidation of water to
oxygen and reduction of carbon in carbon dioxide to glucose takes place.

The photosynthesis process takes place in two stages:

 Light-dependent or photochemical reaction or Hill reaction
 Light-independent phase or biosynthetic phase or dark reaction
Light-dependent or photochemical reaction or Hill reaction
This reaction requires sunlight to produce energy molecules (ATP & NADPH). Moreover,
photosynthesis increases with more photons (light) and consequently, more energy
molecules are produced.
The ‘light-dependent or photochemical’ phase involves
 light absorption,
 water splitting,
 the release of oxygen, and
 the formation of high-energy chemical intermediates, ATP and NADPH
Light Absorption
Light-harvesting system, also called antennae, comprises antenna pigments associated with
proteins. The antenna pigments are mainly chlorophyll-b, xanthophylls and carotenoids
molecules, which absorb light of different wavelengths and transfer their energy to the
reaction centre

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The reaction centre forms by a single chlorophyll-a molecule where the energy is trapped. In
PS-I, the reaction centre has an absorption peak at 700nm, hence P700; in PS-II, the reaction
centre has an absorption maxima at 600nm and P680.
The chlorophyll of PS-II absorbs light at 680nm (red light), gets excited and causes electrons
to jump.
These electrons are picked up by a primary electron acceptor and pass them downhill to an
electrons transport system consisting of cytochromes through oxidation-reduction or redox
reactions.
The electrons are passed on to the pigments of photosystem PS I.
PS-I are also excited after receiving a red light of wavelength 700nm and are transferred
downhill again to reduce NADP+ to NADPH and H+.
Water Splitting
The supply of electrons continuously is achieved by the splitting of water involving PS-II
located on the inner side of the thylakoid membrane
Water is split into 2H+,[O] and electrons. This liberates oxygen (one of the net products of
photosynthesis).
Cyclic and noncyclic photo-phosphorylation
Living organisms extract energy from oxidisable substances and store them as ATP.
The process through which ATP is synthesised from ADP and Pi (inorganic phosphate) by the
cell organelles like mitochondria and chloroplast is called phosphorylation.
Photophosphorylation is the synthesis of ATP from ADP and inorganic phosphate in the
presence of light.
The two photosystems are connected through an electron transport chain to produce ATP
and NADPH and H+ in noncyclic photophosphorylation.
In PSI, the electron is circulated within the photosystem, and the phosphorylation occurs in
a cyclic manner in the stroma lamellae, only synthesising ATP, but not NADPH and H+.

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Chemiosmotic Hypothesis
This explains how ATP is synthesised in the chloroplast.
ATP synthesis occurs due to the development of a proton gradient across the thylakoid
membrane.
The proton or hydrogen ion accumulation occurs inside the membrane. In the lumen, the
splitting of the water molecule and protons are transported across the membrane from the
stroma due to the movement of electrons through the photosystems.
The NADP reductase collects protons from the stroma. The NADP reductase along with
electrons that come from the acceptor of electrons of PS-I and reduces NADP+ to NADPH
and H+.
Hence, within the chloroplast, protons in the stroma decrease in number, while in the
lumen (decrease in pH), there is an accumulation of protons creating a proton gradient
across the thylakoid membrane.
This gradient leads to the synthesis of ATP, with the movement of protons across the
membrane to the stroma.
The transmembrane channel of the CF0 of the ATP synthase carries out facilitated diffusion
of protons from lumen to stroma.
The CF1 faces the stroma and undergoes the conformational change due to the gradient
breakdown, which provides energy to synthesise ATP.
The ATP will be used immediately in the biosynthetic reaction.

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Light-Independent or Dark Reaction or Biosynthetic Phase

Essentially, the light-independent reaction uses the energy molecules produced by the light-
dependent reaction to produce even more energy molecules.
This process is light-independent, or it does not require direct sunlight but depends on the
products of the light reaction, i.e., ATP and NADPH, besides CO2 and H2O.
The CO2 is combined with H2O to produce (CH2O)n(CH2O)n or sugars.
The Calvin Cycle (C3 Pathway)
Calvin and his co-workers explained that the pathway operated in a cyclic manner with the
regeneration of RuBP
The three stages of the Calvin Cycle are carboxylation, reduction and regeneration.

Carboxylation
 The most crucial step.
 Fixation of CO2 into a stable organic intermediate.
CO2 is utilised for the carboxylation of RuBP by the enzyme RuBP carboxylase-oxygenase or
RuBisCO, resulting in the formation of two 3-PGA.
Reduction:
 This is the series of reactions that lead to the formation of glucose.
 Involves 2 molecules of ATP for phosphorylation and two molecules of NADPH for
reduction per CO2 molecule fixed.
 The fixation of six molecules of CO2 and 6 turns of the cycle are required to form one
molecule of glucose from the pathway.
Regeneration:
 The CO2 acceptor molecule RuBP is regenerated to continue the cycle.
 These steps require one ATP for phosphorylation to form RuBP.
For every CO2 molecule which enters the Calvin cycle, 3 molecules of ATP and 2 of NADPH
are required.

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To make one glucose molecule, 6 turns of the cycle with 18 ATP and 12 NADPH are required.
Factors Affecting Photosynthesis
Photosynthesis process requires several factors such as:
Light Intensity: Increased light intensity results in a higher rate of photosynthesis. On the
other hand, low light intensity results in a lower rate of photosynthesis.
The concentration of CO2: Higher concentration of carbon dioxide helps in increasing the rate
of photosynthesis. Usually, carbon dioxide in the range of 300 – 400 PPM is adequate for
photosynthesis.
Temperature: For efficient execution of photosynthesis, it is important to have a temperature
range between 25° to 35° C.
Water: As water is an important factor in photosynthesis, its deficiency can lead to problems
in the intake of carbon dioxide. The scarcity of water leads to the refusal of stomatal opening
to retain the amount of water they have stored inside.
Pollution: Industrial pollutants and other particulates may settle on the leaf surface. This can
block the pores of stomata which makes it difficult to take in carbon dioxide.

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