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 Meaningful
METRICS
A 21st-Century Librarian’s Guide
to Bibliometrics, Altmetrics,
and Research Impact

Robin Chin Roemer & Rachel Borchardt

Association of College and Research Libraries

A division of the American Library Association
Chicago, Illinois 2015
The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of
American National Standard for Information Sciences–Permanence of Paper for
Printed Library Materials, ANSI Z39.48-1992. ∞

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Meaningful metrics : a 21st century librarian’s guide to bibliometrics, altmetrics,

and research impact / edited by Robin Chin Roemer and Rachel Borchardt.
pages cm
ISBN 978-0-8389-8755-1 (pbk. : alk. paper) -- ISBN 978-0-8389-8757-5 (epub)
-- ISBN 978-0-8389-8756-8 (pdf ) -- ISBN 978-0-8389-8758-2 (kindle) 1.
Bibliometrics. 2. Bibliographical citations--Evaluation. 3. Scholarly publish-
ing--Evaluation. 4. Research--Evaluation--Statistical methods. 5. Communication
in learning and scholarship--Technological innovations. I. Roemer, Robin Chin,
editor. II. Borchardt, Rachel, editor.
Z669.8.M43 2015
010.72’7--dc23
2015006338

Copyright ©2015 by The Association of College & Research Libraries, a division

of the American Library Association.

All rights reserved except those which may be granted by Sections 107 and 108 of
the Copyright Revision Act of 1976.

Printed in the United States of America.

19 18 17 16 15 5 4 3 2 1
Table of Contents
Foreword..................................................................................................v

PART 1. IMPACT
Chapter 1: Understanding Impact...................................................3
Chapter 2: Impact in Practice......................................................... 13

PART 2. BIBLIOMETRICS
Chapter 3: Understanding Bibliometrics................................... 27
Chapter 4: Bibliometrics in Practice............................................ 71

PART 3. ALTMETRICS
Chapter 5: Understanding Altmetrics........................................99
Chapter 6: Altmetrics in Practice................................................155

PART 4. SPECIAL TOPICS

Chapter 7: Disciplinary Impact.....................................................181
Chapter 8: Impact and the Role of Librarians...................... 209
Glossary...............................................................................................233
Acknowledgments.......................................................................... 239
About the Authors............................................................................241

iii
Foreword

A
few days ago, we were speaking with an ecologist from Simon
Fraser University here in Vancouver about an unsolicited job
offer he’d recently received. The offer included an astonishing
inducement: Anyone from his to-be-created lab who could wangle a first
or corresponding authorship of a Nature paper would receive a bonus of
$100,000.
Are we seriously this obsessed with a single journal? Who does this
benefit? (Not to mention, one imagines the unfortunate middle authors of
such a paper, trudging to a rainy bus stop as their endian-authoring col-
leagues roar by in jewel-encrusted Ferraris.) Although it’s an extreme case,
it’s sadly not an isolated one. Across the world, a certain kind of adminis-
trator is doubling down on 20th-century, journal-centric metrics like the
impact factor.
That’s particularly bad timing because our research communication
system is just beginning a transition to 21st-century communication tools
and norms. We’re increasingly moving beyond the homogeneous, jour-
nal-based system that defined 20th-century scholarship.
Today’s scholars increasingly disseminate web-native scholarship.
For instance, Jason’s 2010 tweet coining the term “altmetrics” is now more
cited than some of his peer-reviewed papers. Heather’s openly published
datasets have gone on to fuel new articles written by other researchers.
And like a growing number of other researchers, we’ve published research
v
vi Foreword

code, slides, videos, blog posts, and figures that have been viewed, reused,
and built upon by thousands all over the world. Where we do publish tra-
ditional journal papers, we increasingly care about broader impacts, like
citation in Wikipedia, bookmarking in reference managers, press coverage,
blog mentions, and more. You know what’s not capturing any of this? The
impact factor.
Many researchers and tenure committees are hungry for alternatives,
for broader, more diverse, more nuanced metrics. Altmetrics are in high
demand; we see examples at Impactstory (our altmetrics-focused non-
profit) all the time. Many faculty share how they are including downloads,
views, and other alternative metrics in their tenure and promotion dossiers
and how evaluators have enthused over these numbers. There’s tremendous
drive from researchers to support us as a nonprofit, from faculty offering to
pay hundreds of extra dollars for profiles to a Senegalese postdoc refusing
to accept a fee waiver. Other altmetrics startups like Plum Analytics and
Altmetric can tell you similar stories.
At higher levels, forward-thinking policy makers and funders are
also seeing the value of 21st-century impact metrics and are keen to realize
their full potential. We’ve been asked to present on 21st-century metrics at
the NIH, NSF, the White House, and more. It’s not these folks who are driv-
ing the impact factor obsession; on the contrary, we find that many high-
level policy-makers are deeply disappointed with 20th-century metrics as
we’ve come to use them. They know there’s a better way.
But many working scholars and university administrators are wary of
the growing momentum behind next-generation metrics. Researchers and
administrators off the cutting edge are ill-informed, uncertain, afraid. They
worry new metrics represent Taylorism, a loss of rigor, a loss of mean-
ing. This particularly true among the majority of faculty who are less com-
fortable with online and web-native environments and products. But even
researchers who are excited about the emerging future of altmetrics and
web-native scholarship have a lot of questions. It’s a new world out there,
and one that most researchers are not well trained to negotiate.
We believe librarians are uniquely qualified to help. Academic librar-
ians know the lay of the land, they keep up-to-date with research, and they
are experienced providing leadership to scholars and decision-makers on
 Foreword vii

campus. That’s why we’re excited that Robin and Rachel have put this book
together. To be most effective, librarians need to be familiar with the met-
rics research, which is currently advancing at breakneck speed. And they
need to be familiar with the state of practice—not just now, but what’s com-
ing down the pike over the next few years. This book, with its focus on
integrating research with practical tips, gives librarians the tools they need.
It’s an intoxicating time to be involved in scholarly communication.
We’ve begun to see the profound effect of the web here, but we’re just at the
beginning. Scholarship is on the brink of a Cambrian explosion, a break-
neck flourishing of new scholarly products, norms, and audiences. In this
new world, research metrics can be adaptive, subtle, multidimensional,
responsible. We can leave the fatuous, ignorant use of impact factors and
other misapplied metrics behind us. Forward-thinking librarians have an
opportunity to help shape these changes, to take their place at the vanguard
of the web-native scholarship revolution. We can make a better scholarship
system, together. We think that’s even better than that free Ferrari.

Jason Priem
Heather Piwowar
Cofounders of Impactstory
 Glossary

Section 1
IMPACT
 C h ap te r O n e

Understanding
Impact

O
nce upon a time, there was no such thing as bibliometrics. Like its
conceptual predecessor, statistical bibliography, bibliometrics is a
concept predicated on the widespread existence of printed mate-
rial and the acceptance of a specific printed format (the journal article)
as a fundamental means of communication between scholars and experts
within a field. Within library and information science (LIS), we have
seen many excellent books and articles published over the last 20 years,
each telling its own version of the history of bibliometrics and predicting
what lies in store for scholars and practitioners of bibliometrics with new
advancements in technology, research methods, and general higher ed.
This is not one of those books. This is a book that tells stories—some
of which are about bibliometrics, others of which are about altmetrics, but
all of which are about impact and human beings’ never-ending quest to
measure, track, and compare their value.
At this point, let’s take a moment to reflect on what we mean when
we say the word impact, particularly in the context of an academic book.
Impact is a word that we in the LIS field hear and use every day, yet it can
be a surprisingly tricky word to define, at least without lots of additional
context. For example, researchers in public health would certainly be dis-
appointed by an English department’s assessment about what it means
for faculty to produce “impactful” scholarship. This is because impact

3
4 Understanding Impact

is a word with a variety of subtle definitions, each changing over time

and with different audiences, geographies, and local institutional philos-
ophies. The result is a curious situation, often making it easier for aca-
demics to focus on personal techniques for measuring impact—citation
counts, indices, journal rankings—than to engage in larger conversations
about what impact means for and across their respective disciplines. This
gap is unfortunate for both individual academics and their institutions
alike in that it delays sharing new ideas and observations about what
it means for scholars in a given field to engage meaningfully with one
another or with their target audiences. We will discuss the various disci-
plinary definitions of impact in more detail later. For now, however, it is
important for us to understand impact as a term that generally encom-
passes two important principles: first, effect, in the sense of a perceptible
shift, change, or influence; and second, force, in the sense of the strength
or degree of this effect. The two-part determination of where a work can
be said to have an effect and to what extent the force of this effect can be
quantified and benchmarked is what makes impact such a complex and
potentially broad-reaching conversation that many stakeholders can offer
valuable perspective.
This issue of stakeholders brings us back to the purpose of this book:
to provide librarians and LIS researchers with a collection of stories on the
subject of impact that they can use to build their own conversations and
add their own contextualizing chapters to. Some of you, especially those
of you who are not librarians or LIS students, may wonder why we have
chosen to address this population as our primary audience rather than fac-
ulty or researchers in a specific academic field or discipline. The question
is a good one and deserves a chapter of its own (see Chapter 8). However,
for purposes of this introduction, we will simply point out that librarians
are, and have been for many decades, crucial connectors between faculty,
departments, and university administrators. They are used to telling stories
to an academic audience, whether to faculty about the metrics administra-
tors value for purposes of tenure and promotion or to administrators about
the support that faculty need to apply for grants and perform essential
research. LIS researchers are similarly well positioned because of the multi-
and meta-disciplinary nature of their work with patterns of information.
 Chapter One 5

That said, these stories can’t translate into action without the understand-
ing and help of enthusiastic faculty and innovative administrators, so this
book will also explore their needs, challenges, and opportunities, particu-
larly in partnership with libraries.
Now let us move on to three additional questions for understanding
the premise and organization of this book, starting with the measurement
of impact itself.

What Do We Get When We Measure?

The first thing to know when it comes to measuring impact is that it is,
strictly speaking, totally impossible. As an abstract human concept—like
power or worth or cool—impact is inherently immeasurable. Still, much
like the “ultimate question of life, the universe, and everything” in Douglas
Adams’ Hitchhiker’s Guide to the Galaxy trilogy, impact is stubbornly
viewed in academia as a question that must be answered, whether that
answer is 42 or 50 citations or a $1,000,000 research grant.
To understand what we get when we measure impact, we must jump
back to what we actually mean when we talk about particular impact
metrics. When we say, for instance, that a journal has an impact factor
of three, what we mean is that in the last three years, this journal aver-
aged three citations per published article. Does this mean if we publish in
this journal we will have achieved impact? Not really, but it does tell us
something about citations, which historically have been viewed as the best
available approximations of academic impact. Indeed, the entire field of
bibliometrics is based around the acceptability of this sort of substitution.
But what we get when we count citations or perform analysis on book and
article bibliographies is just that: information about citation patterns. It is
only when we start to tell stories with these numbers (e.g., “my average is
higher than your average”) that we get to a place where impact can thrive.
It’s a small distinction but an essential one, particularly as we tackle our
preconceptions and prejudices about the “legitimacy” of different impact
metrics. This brings us to the second fundamental question of this book,
regarding the need to move beyond the limits of citation-based impact
indicators.
6 Understanding Impact

Why Move Beyond Bibliometrics?

As we will discuss further in Part 2, the field of bibliometrics developed in a
fundamentally different era of scholarship and culture, back when libraries
were all about “the stacks” and university professors were predominantly
tenured, white, and male. Since then, not only have technology and faculty
demographics changed dramatically, but academic pressures to demon-
strate impact have also significantly risen. At the same time, academia has
seen faculty research shift along increasingly complex interdisciplinary and
subdisciplinary lines—both of which frustrate efforts to standardize expec-
tations for citation-based impact. Consequently, it is now more necessary
than ever that the suite of metrics we use today is able to keep up with rapid
developments in the landscape of academic knowledge. To say we must
move beyond bibliometrics is, quite simply, to observe that bibliometrics
can no longer represent the full spectrum of impact available to researchers
in the 21st century. It is not that we must abandon bibliometrics entirely,
far from it. However, by moving to embrace a fuller scope of metrics—one
more in sync with the changes in practice and audience being seen in the
current scholarly environment—we move significantly closer to fulfilling
the needs of faculty across and within their areas of specialization.
This brings us to the third and arguably biggest question behind the prem-
ise of this book: the need to incorporate alternative web-based metrics into
our scholarly portfolios and practices.

Why Do We Need Altmetrics?

Once we accept the idea that bibliometrics are not always sufficient to
satisfy the impact-related needs of scholars, the next challenge is to
understand the value of altmetrics, such as the specific advantages and dis-
advantages they offer in mapping the modern impact landscape. A com-
mon argument made against altmetrics, for instance, is their seeming lack
of interest in distinguishing between points of engagement that happen
within the scholarly sphere and those that occur in wider public forums,
such as Twitter. However, if one recalls that the ultimate goal of collecting
metrics is to accurately measure the impact of scholarship in general as
well as within various key communities, we can see that altmetrics offer a
 Chapter One 7

means to collect metrics different from what we have used in the past and
an opportunity to understand these new metrics in their emerging context.
This is important for a number of reasons.
First, and perhaps most crucially, impact metrics are used by fac-
ulty in a variety of high-stakes evaluative situations, including applications
for tenure, promotion, and research funding. For a career academic, it is
essential that these metrics be understood accurately and in context by
administrators and faculty members who may not be familiar with a given
researcher’s discipline or subdiscipline; otherwise, a lack of understanding
may lead to unfair comparisons to highly disparate fields. As more aca-
demics enter the workforce, the competition and pressure to succeed in a
tenure-track position increases. Consequently, many universities place an
increasing importance on the ability of pre-tenure hires to demonstrate
quantitative impact to ensure that departments retain only the best and
most productive researchers. This shift places the burden of proof squarely
on individuals, who are often unaware or untrained in how best to prove
their worth in the fields and types of research they are pursuing. Thus,
in the largest sense, altmetrics are needed for their power to change the
course of academics’ lives and for their ability to demonstrate the impact
of research—particularly certain forms of publicly oriented research—in a
dimension of scholarly communication that was not previously quantified
or open for discussion.
A second factor in the present-day need for altmetrics is the sheer
expansion of the amount of published research available to scholars via
the Internet and other online or electronic resources. For more than 50
consecutive years, the US has seen a roughly 3% annual increase in the
number of journal articles published.1 The result of this growth is that aca-
demics are having a more difficult time than ever keeping up with and
sorting through the journal articles and other published literature of their
respective fields. One solution to this problem has been to use quantita-
tive methods to judge the relative quality of research, including the impact
that specific publications have had on similar scholarly communities.
However, the simultaneous increase in interdisciplinary, multidisciplinary,
and subdisciplinary research areas has created an environment that makes
it difficult for individual researchers to determine what “similar” scholarly
8 Understanding Impact

communities are, an obstacle that further frustrates attempts to measure

the quality of published work. For instance, if a chemistry professor writes
an article about the role that the media plays in influencing the adoption of
chemical research findings in the context of daily life, how is he or she to
know whether the resulting publication’s impact metrics are best compared
to those of articles from the fields of chemistry, communication, or pub-
lic health? With different impact norms and expectations in each of these
fields, the perceived impact of such an article would vary greatly depend-
ing on the context the article is presented in. With altmetrics, researchers
have an opportunity not only to look for areas of influence outside of tra-
ditional disciplinary boundaries but to gather clues as to the scope of their
influence outside of formal academic communities—information that may
help balance citation-based metrics and broaden disciplinary expecta-
tions for researcher influence. In the third part of this book, we examine in
depth how altmetrics offer a supplemental solution to the dual problems
of information overload and impact silos and how it encourages schol-
ars to broaden their definition of what it means to be part of a scholarly
community. In part four, we return to the enormous challenge of satisfy-
ing the impact measurement needs of both disciplinary and interdisciplin-
ary researchers as we identify special issues that continue to challenge and
shape the future of both altmetrics and bibliometrics.
While quantitative pressures on tenure-track faculty and shifts in the
boundaries of scholarly communication comprise the two of most com-
mon arguments in favor of altmetrics adoption, readers from within the
LIS community will also recognize a third factor: the perpetual problem
of university funding and subscription costs. For more than a decade, aca-
demic libraries have witnessed the double-edged sword of swiftly rising
e-resource costs and decreasing collections budgets, to the point that many
libraries have had to face cutting what in other years might have been
considered core subscriptions. Sadly, this means that few institutions can
afford to subscribe to more than one of the two major resources known for
generating highly regarded bibliometric impact measurements—Web of
Knowledge by Thomson Reuters and Scopus by Elsevier—and many more
cannot afford to subscribe to either. For this reason, the new wave of free
or low-cost web-based altmetrics tools have the potential to enhance, and
 Chapter One 9

perhaps even someday replace, expensive subscription-based bibliometric

tools, particularly if they continue to work in complement to other free
impact measuring resources, such as the downloadable program Publish
or Perish or the increasingly popular Google Scholar Profiles tool. Once
again, this is not to say that the big names in bibliometrics are on their
way out anytime soon. Yet to deny that altmetrics are part of the future
of impact measurement is to deny both the opportunities that altmetrics
offer and the needs of researchers for updated resources and quantitative
options related to 21st-century scholarship and impact. Thus, in the final
chapter of this book, we discuss the responsibility that librarians have to
follow trends in impact from bibliometrics to altmetrics and the various
ways that librarians themselves can benefit from getting involved with such
metrics today.
And so, at last, we come back to the book you hold in your hands
and the stories it offers on impact and its various schools of measurement.

How to Use this Book

This book is divided into four thematic parts: impact, bibliometrics, alt-
metrics, and special topics. Each part is designed to take readers on a
detailed and practical tour of the trends, topics, and tools currently at play
within the theme at hand, while at the same time showing key points of
overlap with other thematic areas. Any one of these parts may therefore
be read on its own as an exploration of a limited piece within the greater
puzzle of impact measurement. However, for readers new to metrics or
looking to gain a greater understanding of the past and future directions
of impact measurement, we encourage you to consider approaching the
chapters sequentially.
Another organizational structure you will notice in this book is the
inclusion of “in practice” chapters, which intersperse more information-
driven “understanding” chapters within some thematic sections. Such
chapters speak to the nature of this book as both an introductory text and
a practical guide to the many ways that LIS professionals and researchers
can engage with impact within the context of their daily lives. Additionally,
many chapters include anecdotes, advice, and scenarios from current
practitioners within the field, from academic librarians to the metric tool
10 Understanding Impact

creators. These voices help tell alternative stories about the challenges and
opportunities of engaging with impact measurement, and they can help
interested readers identify further ideas for resources, discussions, and
partnerships at their local or home institutions.

How Not to Use this Book

Like other areas of librarianship, including medical and legal librarianship,
working in the field of impact measurement has the potential to result in
profound effects on the users with whom we work. A librarian who has
read the literature and followed up with the tools available is more than
qualified to offer information to a faculty member or researcher on the
options available for measuring impact. At the same time, however, the
information a librarian offers should not be considered legally binding
advice; the application of metrics to any situation is ultimately up to the
individual user, for better or worse. This case applies equally in the applica-
tion of information gathered in the course of reading this book: It is up to
each of you, as individual readers, to determine the best and most respon-
sible way to use the information you find in its pages. To treat this book as
list of prescriptions for which approaches impact should be taking place at
your campus, institution, or workplace is to misunderstand the complexity
of the local academic climate and the diversity of needs that researchers
have when it comes to measuring impact. For this reason, we ask again that
you use this book as a presentation of stories and options, some of which
may resonate with you and some of which may not. What you decide to do
next is ultimately up to you—just as what your users do is ultimately up to
them.

Additional Resources
National Science Foundation (NSF) Grant Proposal Guide
An online guide to grant proposals provided by the NSF. Like many
funding agencies, NSF requires applications to include a descrip-
tion of both the expected intellectual merit of each proposal and the
broader impact of the related research. http://www.nsf.gov/pubs/
policydocs/ pappguide/nsf13001/gpg_2.jsp
 Chapter One 11

Harvard Medical School and School of Dental Medicine’s Promotion

Policies
An example of an academic unit’s specialized promotion policies,
in this case for Harvard’s Medical School and School of Dental
Medicine. Note that “demonstrated impact” is required of candi-
dates at virtually every stage of promotion. This requirement is com-
mon to many faculty promotion policies. http://www.fa.hms.har-
vard.edu/administratorresources/appointment-and-promotion/
promotion-policies/

University of Pennsylvania Wharton School’s Social Impact Initiative

An online resource of the University of Pennsylvania’s Wharton
School of Business that makes clear the specific emphasis placed by
the university on tracking the impact of the school in ways that tran-
scend traditional scholarly definitions. Many professional schools
are similarly rethinking their “impact stories” to include populations
beyond the walls of academia, such as the public sphere. http://socia-
limpact.wharton.upenn.edu/faculty-research/

Association of American Colleges & Universities’ (AACU) High-

Impact Educational Practices
AACU’s Liberal Education and America’s Promise (LEAP) approaches
higher education impact from another perspective beyond research:
high-impact teaching, education, and practice. This online help page
provides academic practitioners with plenty of practical tips and
helpful guidance. http://www.aacu.org/leap/hips

Notes
1. Mark Ware and Michael Mabe, The STM Report: An Overview of
Scientific and Scholarly Journal Publishing (The Hague, Netherlands:
International Association of Scientific, Technical, and Medical
Publishers, 2012), http://www.stm-assoc.org/2012_12_11_STM_
Report_2012.pdf
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