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This page intentionally left blank
 Defining Pragmatics

Although there is no shortage of definitions for pragmatics (context depend-

ence, nontruth conditionality, implicitness, etc.), the received wisdom is that
“pragmatics” simply cannot be coherently defined. In this ground-breaking
book Mira Ariel challenges the prominent definitions of pragmatics, as well as
the widely held assumption that specific topics€ – implicatures, deixis, speech
acts, politeness€– naturally and uniformly belong on the pragmatics turf. She
reconstitutes the field, defining grammar as a set of conventional codes, and
pragmatics as a set of inferences, rationally derived. The book applies this div-
ision of labor between codes and inferences to many classical pragmatic phe-
nomena, and even to phenomena considered “beyond pragmatics.” Surprisingly,
although some of these turn out pragmatic, others actually turn out grammat-
ical. Additional intriguing questions addressed in the book include:€Why is it
sometimes difficult to distinguish grammar from pragmatics? Why is there no
grand design behind grammar nor behind pragmatics? Are all extragrammatical
phenomena pragmatic?

Mira Ariel is a professor in the Linguistics Department at Tel Aviv University,

Israel. Her recent publications include Pragmatics and Grammar (Cambridge,
2008).
 Research Surveys in Linguistics

In large domains of theoretical and empirical linguistics, the needs of scholarly

communication are directly comparable to those in analytical and natural sciences.
Conspicuously lacking in the inventory of publications for linguists, compared to
those in the sciences, are concise, single-authored, non-textbook reviews of rapidly
evolving areas of inquiry. The series Research Surveys in Linguistics is intended
to fill this gap. It consists of well-indexed volumes that survey topics of significant
theoretical interest on which there has been a proliferation of research in the last two
decades. The goal is to provide an efficient overview of, and entry into, the primary
literature for linguists€– both advanced students and researchers€– who wish to move
into, or stay literate in, the areas covered. Series authors are recognized authorities
on the subject matter, as well as clear, highly organized writers. Each book offers
the reader relatively tight structuring in sections and subsections, and a detailed
index for ease of orientation.

Previously published in this series

A Thematic Guide to Optimality Theory John J. McCarthy
The Phonology of Tone and Intonation Carlos Gussenhoven
Argument Realization Beth Levin and Malka Rappaport Hovav
Lexicalization and Language Change Laurel J. Brinton and
Elizabeth Closs Traugott
Defining Pragmatics

Mira Ariel
Tel Aviv University
 CA M BR I D GE U N I V E R S I T Y P R E S S
Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore,
São Paulo, Delhi, Dubai, Tokyo
Cambridge University Press
The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge CB2 8RU, UK

Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press, New York

www.cambridge.org
Information on this title:€www.cambridge.org/9780521732031

© Mira Ariel 2010

This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception

and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements,
no reproduction of any part may take place without the written
permission of Cambridge University Press.

First published 2010

Printed in the United Kingdom at the University Press, Cambridge

A catalogue record for this publication is available from the British Library

Library of Congress Cataloguing in Publication data

Ariel, Mira.
â•… Defining pragmatics / Mira Ariel.
â•… p.â•… cm. – (Research surveys in linguistics)
â•… Includes bibliographical references and indexes.
â•… ISBN 978-0-521-51783-6 – ISBN 978-0-521-73203-1 (pbk.)
╅ 1.╇ Pragmatics.╅ I.╇ Title.╅ II.╇ Series.
â•… P99.4.P72A747 2010
â•… 306.44–dc22â•…â•…â•… 2010014621

ISBN 978-0-521-51783-6 Hardback

ISBN 978-0-521-73203-1 Paperback

Additional resources for this publication at www.cambridge.org/ariel

Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or

accuracy of URLs for external or third-party internet websites referred to in
this publication, and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is,
or will remain, accurate or appropriate.
 

To my Ginat, Maya and Iddo,

with all my love
 Contents

Preface xiii
Acknowledgments xv
Transcription conventions xvii
1 What’s under the big-tent pragmatics? 1
1.1 A taste of big-tent pragmatics 1
1.2 How big-tent pragmatics was born 4
1.3 Where Defining Pragmatics should take us 16

Part Iâ•… Deconstructing pragmatics

2 Surveying multiple-criterion definitions for pragmatics 23

2.1 Meaning criteria 24
2.1.1 Context dependence 24
2.1.2 Nontruth conditionality 28
2.1.3 Implicit and secondary 31
2.2 Analytic criteria 34
2.2.1 Discourse unit 34
2.2.2 Extragrammatical accounts 37
2.2.3 Acceptability judgments 42
2.2.4 Naturalness 43
2.3 Cognitive criteria 45
2.3.1 Performance 45
2.3.2 Right-hemisphere specialization 47
2.3.3 Inference 49
2.4 On the convergence between the different criteria 53
3 Problematizing the criteria 56
3.1 Meaning criteria 57
3.1.1 Context dependence 57

ix
x Contents

3.1.2 Nontruth conditionality 60

3.1.3 Implicit and secondary 64
3.2 Analytic criteria 67
3.2.1 Discourse unit 68
3.2.2 Extragrammatical accounts 73
3.2.3 Acceptability judgments 75
3.2.4 Naturalness 77
3.3 Cognitive criteria 80
3.3.1 Performance 80
3.3.2 Right-hemisphere specialization 83
3.3.3 Inference 86

Part II╅╇ Reconstituting pragmatics

4 Grammar as code, pragmatics as inference 93

4.1 A definition of convenience:€pragmatics as a list of
canonized topics 93
4.2 Grammar as code, pragmatics as inference 97
4.3 What’s behind grammar versus pragmatics? 104
4.3.1 A Procrustean Bed:€minimalistic ‘what is said’s 104
4.3.2 The functions of the code/inference distinction 111
5 Inferential pragmatic theories 120
5.1 Gricean principles 120
5.2 Neo-Gricean principles 128
5.3 Relevance Theory 135

Part IIIâ•… Mapping the big tent

6 The canon 149

6.1 Deixis and reference 149
6.2 Speech acts 152
6.3 Meaning determination 154
6.4 Presupposition 156
6.5 Intonation 158
6.6 Topicality and discourse structure 159
6.7 Implicatures and explicated inferences 163
7 Functional syntax 169
7.1 The added value of constructions 172
7.2 Extragrammatical functions associated with constructions 174
7.3 Encoded construction meanings 182
7.4 Code, and inference too 193
7.5 Complex form–function correlations 202
7.5.1 What’s the relevant construction? 202
7.5.2 Code or inference? 205
 Contents xi

8 Beyond pragmatics 212

8.1 Politeness 213
8.2 Stance 216
8.3 Nonliteral references 219
8.4 Interactional patterns 219
8.5 Discourse styles 221
8.6 Sociolinguistic variation 221
8.7 Psycholinguistic phenomena 224
9 Many questions, some resolutions 230
9.1 Recapitulating the main argument 230
9.2 Why is it sometimes difficult to distinguish grammar from
pragmatics, and what’s the problem with Occam’s Razor? 235
9.3 Why is there no grand design behind grammar and behind
pragmatics? 242
9.4 Do we now have more grammar or more pragmatics? 247
9.5 Are all extragrammatical phenomena pragmatic? 248
9.6 What’s the status of grammatical pragmatics? 256
9.6.1 An argument for a separate grammatical
pragmatic status 261
9.6.2 An argument against a separate grammatical
pragmatic status 264
9.7 Summary 271
Notes 275
References 293
Index of names 323
Index of subjects 329
 Preface

If only linguistic expressions were well behaved. We would have a very neat pic-
ture of grammar versus pragmatics. Grammar would be restricted to the conven-
tional which would simultaneously and necessarily also be context independent
and truth conditional, and pragmatics would be nonconventional (inferential) and
simultaneously and necessarily also context sensitive and nontruth conditional.
As Recanati (2004b:€445) reminds us, however, “we can’t have it both ways”
for either field. Semantics can’t always be both conventional and truth condi-
tional, and pragmatics can’t always be both inferential and nontruth conditional.
The same applies to other criteria proposed in the literature for distinguishing
grammar and pragmatics. Recanati’s conclusion is that the grammar/pragmatics
division of labor can be drawn absolutely only for prototypical cases. It must be
stipulative for nonprototypical phenomena (such as conventional implicatures).
Other linguists have applied the grammar/pragmatics division of labor incon-
sistently to make it work, adopting different criteria for different pragmatic
questions (e.g., Horn and Ward, 2004). Many semanticists also �simultaneously
hold criteria which clash with one another for the �complementary semantics,
because they are reluctant to give up any one of them. Thus, even if context
�dependent, some phenomena count as semantic for some researchers, if they
are truth �conditional (Recanati, 2004b). Yet other linguists have given up on
the grammar/pragmatics division of labor altogether. The grammar/pragmat-
ics division of labor is in trouble. We here outline a solution for the definition
dilemma.
The research survey in this book traces the history of the grammar/prag-
matics divide, and reaches the conclusion, very much in line with Relevance
Theory, that only a code versus inference distinction can serve as a solid basis
for a grammar/pragmatics division of labor. Once this has been established, we
can consistently apply this criterion, and this criterion alone, to a rich array of
pragmatic topics in order to identify which aspects are indeed pragmatic. In
following this procedure Defining Pragmatics is unique. Although pragmatists

xiii
xiv Preface

have been quite aware of the definition problem for the field, textbook writers,
starting with Levinson (1983) and ending with Huang (2007), as well as compil-
ers of reference books on pragmatics (Horn and Ward, 2004; Kasher, 1998b)
never followed through on their own conclusions that the field of pragmatics,
as they themselves take it to be, cannot be based on a solid coherent definition.
They each followed a well-trodden track where pragmatics was mechanically
defined as a list of topics, each of which belongs in pragmatics, even if gram-
matical (encoded) aspects are crucially involved as well. Thus was born and
institutionalized the big-tent pragmatics field. Relevance theoreticians, the only
ones who have long advocated the code/inference distinction as a grammar/
pragmatics divide and applied it consistently, have focused on a rather small
subset of the topics considered pragmatic. We need to apply this distinction to
the rest, and this is what Defining Pragmatics attempts to do. The importance
of the book does not so much lie in the new findings and claims it offers, as in
the systematicity and absolute consistency of the application of the “pragmatic
method” of teasing codes from inferences, as well as the breadth of the topics
subjected to this analysis, namely, canonical, noncanonical, and even “beyond
pragmatic” topics.
The goal of this book is to deconstruct the field of pragmatics in its rather
hollow, big-tent sense, and to demonstrate how it can be reconstituted on a solid
division of labor between grammar and pragmatics. In order to do pragmat-
ics we need an inferential pragmatics theory (such as Grice, 1989; Sperber
and Wilson, 1986/1995), and we need to apply it to linguistic utterances, so as
to determine where grammar ends and pragmatics begins. We must do it on
the basis of natural-language data. The idea is that there is no pragmatic turf,
with a predetermined set of topics that pragmatics has to include or exclude.
Sociocultural phenomena, for example, often excluded from pragmatics (as well
as from grammar) by stipulation in the Anglo-American tradition, should not
automatically so be ruled out. Thus construed, the study of pragmatics combines
insights from both semantics/pragmatics border-seeker pragmatists such as
Horn (1972 and onwards), Sperber and Wilson (1986/1995) and Carston (2002)
and from problem-solver pragmatists (such as Hopper and Thompson, 1980;
Kuno, 1971 and onwards; Prince, 1978a and onwards). A unified view of the
field can thus be construed.
In the interest of brevity, an editorial decision has been taken to remove
certain parts of the book from the printed version. These portions of the book
appear as appendices named according to the section they belong to, and can
be downloaded from www.cambridge.org/9780521732031. I indicate in the text
which parts are missing (parts of Chapters 3, 5, 6 and 8). For example, additional
material for section 3.1.1 appears under Appendix 3.1.1. Note that I often preface
I, II, etc. to original example numbers repeated from previous chapters (I stands
for Chapter 1, etc.).
 Acknowledgments

For permission to quote extensively from the Santa Barbara Corpus of Spoken
American English (SBC) I thank John W. Du Bois, the editor, and the publish-
ers, The Linguistics Data Consortium, University of Pennsylvania. I also thank
John W. Du Bois for permission to use the Longman Spoken American Corpus
(LSAC), which was compiled under his direction at UC Santa Barbara.
The basic research which led to this book was conducted at Tel Aviv
University and at UC Santa Barbara, especially on my two-year sabbatical leave
there (1999–2001). I am grateful for feedback on parts of this book to the faculty
of the Linguistics departments at both universities. Special thanks go to Sandra
Thompson who has been an inspiring figure for me, a most encouraging friend
and a critical colleague. Shop talk on walks with Rachel Giora helped me shape
up my ideas about pragmatics, the world and myself. I’m not sure which of these
has been more important for the book.
Yael Ziv, Kent Bach and Arie Verhagen provided valuable comments on
parts of Defining Pragmatics, which I very much appreciate. I am also indebted
to Nirit Kadmon and Aldo Sevi for interesting discussions. Several generations
of smart and enthusiastic students at Tel Aviv University served as guinea pigs
for the book, and gave me feedback which made me work harder. I am also
grateful to my anonymous reviewer, especially because s/he insisted I com-
pletely rewrite Chapter 4. Last but not least, I would like to thank Jack Du Bois
for all the long discussions we had about the contents of this book. I feel very
lucky to have had so much of his listening, his criticisms and his suggestions.

xv
 Transcription conventions

The following conventions are used in most of the transcribed examples in

this book, i.e., those taken from conversations in the Santa Barbara Corpus of
Spoken American English (SBC). Transcriptions have been slightly simplified
for ease of reading. For a more detailed discussion of these and other relevant
transcription conventions, see Du Bois et al. (1992).

Santa Barbara Corpus of Spoken American English

Symbol Meaning

Jill: speaker label

each intonation unit appears on a intonation unit
separate line. If the IU does not fit in
one line, the next line is indented.
… pause, medium or long (untimed)
.. pause, short (less than 0.2 seconds)
@ laugh (one symbol per pulse)
@you’re @kidding laughing words
[] overlapping/simultaneous speech
[2 ] overlapping speech (2nd pair)
. final intonation
, continuing intonation
? appeal/question intonation
– truncated intonation unit (em dash)
wor– truncated/cut-off word (en dash)
(H) breathe (in)
(Hx) exhale
(TSK) click (alveolar)
(COUGH) vocalisms (various)
### unintelligible (one symbol per syllable)

xvii
xviii Transcription conventions

Symbol Meaning

#you’re #kidding uncertain hearing of words

((WORDS)) transcriber comment

Note:€In most cases, speaker names have been changed to preserve anonymity.

Other symbols
?? Unacceptable string
~ Invented example

Other sources used

The Longman Spoken American Corpus (LSAC)
Lotan 1990:€ A Hebrew transcript of a conversation between an Israeli busi-
nessman and several income tax clerks (all males). Where the original Hebrew
expressions are not crucial for the point being made, I only cite the English
translations of the examples.
Other documents randomly have
different content
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