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 Carraher’s
POLYMER
CHEMISTRY
Eighth Edition

K10478.indb i 9/14/2010 3:35:37 PM

K10478.indb ii 9/14/2010 3:35:42 PM
 Carraher’s
POLYMER
CHEMISTRY
Eighth Edition

Charles E. Carraher, Jr.

K10478.indb iii 9/14/2010 3:35:42 PM

CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
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Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742

© 2011 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC

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 Foreword

Polymer science and technology have developed tremendously over the last few decades, and the
production of polymers and plastics products has increased at a remarkable pace. By the end of
2000, nearly 200 million tons per year of plastic materials were produced worldwide (about 2%
of the wood used, and nearly 5% of the oil harvested) to fulfill the ever-growing needs of the plas-
tic age; in the industrialized world plastic materials are used at a rate of early 100 kg per person
per year. Plastic materials with more than $250 billion per year contribute about 4% to the gross
domestic product in the United States. Plastics have no counterpart in other materials in terms of
weight, ease of fabrication, efficient utilization, and economics. It is no wonder that the demand and
the need for teaching in polymer science and technology have increased rapidly. To teach polymer
science, a readable and up-to-date introductory textbook is required that covers the entire field of
polymer science, engineering, technology, and the commercial aspect of the field. This goal has
been achieved in Carraher’s textbook. It is eminently useful for teaching polymer science in depart-
ments of chemistry, chemical engineering, and material science, and also for teaching polymer
science and technology in polymer science institutes, which concentrate entirely on the science and
technologies of polymers.
This eighth edition addresses the important subject of polymer science and technology, with
emphasis on making it understandable to students. The book is ideally suited not only for graduate
courses but also for an undergraduate curriculum. It has not become more voluminous simply by
the addition of information—in each edition less important subjects have been removed and more
important issues introduced. Polymer science and technology is not only a fundamental science but
also important from the industrial and commercial point of view. The author has interwoven dis-
cussion of these subjects with the basics in polymer science and technology. Testimony to the high
acceptance of this book is that early demand required reprinting and updating of each of the previ-
ous editions. We see the result in this new significantly changed and improved edition.

Otto Vogl
Herman F. Mark Professor Emeritus
Department of Polymer Science and Engineering
University of Massachusetts
Amherst, Massachusetts

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K10478.indb vi 9/14/2010 3:35:43 PM
 Preface

As with most science, and chemistry in particular, there is an explosive broadening and increase in
the importance of the application of foundational principles of polymers. This broadening is seen
in ever increasing vistas allowing the advancement of our increasingly technologically dependant
society and solutions to society’s most important problems in such areas as environment and medi-
cine. Some of this broadening is the result of extended understanding and application of already
known principles, but it also includes the development of basic principles and materials known to
us hardly a decade ago. Most of the advancements in communication and computers, medicine, and
air and water purity are tied to macromolecules and a fundamental understanding of the principles
that govern their behavior. Much of this revolution is of a fundamental nature and is explored in this
latest edition. This book deals with these basic principles and their application in real-life situations.
Technology is the application of scientific principles. In polymers there is often little, if any, division
between science and technology.
The importance of the environment and our interaction with it is becoming increasingly evi-
dent. Industries are increasingly emphasizing on green science and practices that are favorable to
the environment. Polymer science also emphasizes on these practices and contributes critical com-
ponents toward solutions. This text continues to emphasize these measures including special sec-
tions that deal directly with environmental issues as well as integrating green science appropriately
woven within the fabric that is polymer chemistry. Consistent with the continued emphasis on green
chemistry, new sections dealing with photochemistry and green materials have been added.
Polymers are found in the organic natural world as the building blocks for life itself. They are
also found as inorganic building blocks that allow construction of homes, skyscrapers, and roads.
Synthetic polymers serve as basic building blocks of society today and tomorrow. This text includes
all three of these critical segments of polymeric materials.
A basic understanding of polymers is essential to the training of today’s science, biomedical, and
engineering students. Carraher’s Polymer Chemistry complies with the American Chemical Society’s
Committee on Professional Training guidelines as an advanced or in-depth course. It naturally inte-
grates and interweaves the important foundational areas since polymers are critical to all of the foun-
dational areas with all of these foundational areas contributing to the growth of polymer science. Most
of the fundamental principles of polymers are an integral part of the syllabi of the undergraduate and
graduate training courses for students. This allows students to integrate their chemical knowledge and
establish a connection between fundamental and applied chemical information. Thus, along with the
theoretical information, application is integrated as an essential part of the information. As in other
areas such as business and medicine, short case studies are presented as historical material.
While this book is primarily written as an introductory graduate-level course, it can also be used
as an undergraduate course, or as the introductory undergraduate–graduate course. The topics are
written so that the order and inclusion or exclusion of chapters or parts of chapters will still allow
students an adequate understanding of the science of polymers. Most of the chapters begin with
the theory part followed by the application portion. The most important topics are generally at the
beginning of the chapter followed by important, but less critical, sections. Some would prefer to
take up the synthesis-intense chapters first, some would prefer to take up the analytical/analysis/
properties chapters first, and others may simply prefer to take up the chapters as they appear in the
text. The book contains all of the elements of an introductory text with synthesis, property, appli-
cation, and characterization all present, allowing this to be the only polymer course taken by an
individual or the first in a series of polymer-related courses taken by the student.

vii

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 viii Preface

This edition continues in the “user-friendly” mode, with special sections in each chapter contain-
ing definitions, learning objectives, questions, and additional reading. Application and theory are
integrated so that they reinforce one another. There is a continued emphasis on picturing, reinforc-
ing, interweaving, and integrating basic concepts. The initial chapter is shorter, allowing students
to become acclimated. Other chapters are written so they can be covered in about a week’s time or
less. Where possible, difficult topics are distributed and reinforced over several topics. Case studies
are woven into the text fabric.
The basic principles that apply to synthetic polymers apply equally well to inorganic and biolog-
ical polymers and are present in each of the chapters covering these important polymer groupings.
The updating of analytical, physical, and special characterization techniques continues. A num-
ber of topics have been increased and include carbon nanotubes, tapes and glues, butyl rubber,
polystyrene, polypropylene, polyethylene, poly(ethylene glycols), shear-thickening fluids, photo-
chemistry and photophysics, dental materials, and aramids. New sections on a number of copoly-
mers, including fluoroelastomers, nitrile rubbers, acrylonitrile–butadiene–styrene terpolymers, and
EPDM rubber, have been added. In addition, new units on spliceosomes, asphalt, and flyash and
aluminosilicates have been included. There is more emphasis on the molecular behavior of materi-
als, that is, nano-scale behavior, and on nanotechnology and nanomaterials.

K10478.indb viii 9/14/2010 3:35:43 PM

 Acknowledgments

The author gratefully acknowledges the contributions and assistance of the following in preparing
this text: John Droske, Eli Pearce, Charles Pittman, Edward Kresge, Gerry Kirshenbaum, Sukumar
Maiti, Alan MacDiarmid, Les Sperling, Eckhard Hellmuth, Mike Jaffe, Otto Vogel, Thomas
Miranda, Murry Morello, and Graham Allan; and a number of our children who assisted in giving
suggestions for the text—Charles Carraher III, Shawn Carraher, Colleen Carraher-Schwarz, Erin
Carraher, and Cara Carraher—to Erin for discussions on materials, Cara for her help with the bio-
medical material, and to Shawn for his help in relating the business and industrial aspects. Special
thanks to Gerry Kirshenbaum for his kind permission to utilize portions of articles by me that
appeared in Polymer News. This book could not have been written if not for those who are ahead
of us in this field, especially Raymond Seymour, Herman Mark, Charles Gebelein, Paul Flory, and
Linus Pauling; all of these friends shepherded and helped me. My thanks to them.
I thank my wife Mary Carraher for her help in proofing and allowing this edition to be written.

ix

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K10478.indb x 9/14/2010 3:35:43 PM
 Contents

Polymer Nomenclature ................................................................................................................ xxiii

How to Study Polymers ...............................................................................................................xxxv

Chapter 1 Introduction to Polymers ..............................................................................................1

1.1 History of Polymers ...........................................................................................1
1.2 Why Polymers? ..................................................................................................9
1.3 Today’s Marketplace ........................................................................................ 12
1.4 Environmental Assessment ............................................................................. 15
1.5 Summary ......................................................................................................... 18
Glossary ...................................................................................................................... 18
Exercises ..................................................................................................................... 19
Additional Reading ....................................................................................................20
General Encyclopedias and Dictionaries .................................................................... 21

Chapter 2 Polymer Structure (Morphology) ............................................................................... 23

2.1 Stereochemistry of Polymers...........................................................................24
2.2 Molecular Interactions ..................................................................................... 30
2.3 Polymer Crystals ............................................................................................. 38
2.4 Amorphous Bulk State .................................................................................... 42
2.5 Polymer Structure–Property Relationships ..................................................... 42
2.6 Cross-Linking ..................................................................................................44
2.7 Crystalline and Amorphous Combinations ..................................................... 47
2.8 Summary ......................................................................................................... 49
Glossary ...................................................................................................................... 50
Exercises ..................................................................................................................... 51
Additional Reading .................................................................................................... 52

Chapter 3 Molecular Weight of Polymers ................................................................................... 55

3.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................... 55
3.2 Solubility ......................................................................................................... 57
3.3 Average Molecular Weight Values .................................................................. 61
3.4 Fractionation of Polydisperse Systems ............................................................ 65
3.5 Chromatography .............................................................................................. 65
3.6 Colligative Molecular Weights ........................................................................ 69
3.6.1 Osmometry ......................................................................................... 69
3.6.2 End-Group Analysis ........................................................................... 71
3.6.3 Eublliometry and Cryometry ............................................................. 71
3.7 Light-Scattering Photometry ........................................................................... 71
3.8 Other Techniques ............................................................................................. 77
3.8.1 Ultracentrifugation ............................................................................. 77
3.8.2 Mass Spectrometry............................................................................. 79

xi

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 xii Contents

3.9 Viscometry ...................................................................................................... 79

3.10 Summary ......................................................................................................... 86
Glossary ...................................................................................................................... 87
Exercises ..................................................................................................................... 89
Additional Reading ....................................................................................................90

Chapter 4 Polycondensation Polymers (Step-Reaction Polymerization) .................................... 93

4.1 Comparison between Polymer Type and Kinetics of Polymerization ............. 93
4.2 Introduction ..................................................................................................... 98
4.3 Stepwise Kinetics ............................................................................................ 98
4.4 Polycondensation Mechanisms ...................................................................... 103
4.5 Polyesters ....................................................................................................... 105
4.6 Polycarbonates ............................................................................................... 110
4.7 Synthetic Polyamides .................................................................................... 114
4.8 Polyimides ..................................................................................................... 120
4.9 Polybenzimidazoles and Related Polymers ................................................... 121
4.10 Polyurethanes and Polyureas ......................................................................... 122
4.11 Polysulfides .................................................................................................... 125
4.12 Polyethers and Epoxys ................................................................................... 126
4.13 Polysulfones ................................................................................................... 131
4.14 Poly(Ether Ether Ketone) and Polyketones ................................................... 131
4.15 Phenolic and Amino Plastics ......................................................................... 133
4.16 Furan Resins .................................................................................................. 135
4.17 Synthetic Routes ............................................................................................ 135
4.18 Liquid Crystals .............................................................................................. 136
4.19 Microfibers .................................................................................................... 140
4.20 General Stepwise Polymerization.................................................................. 141
4.21 Summary ....................................................................................................... 143
Glossary .................................................................................................................... 144
Exercises ................................................................................................................... 146
Additional Reading .................................................................................................. 147

Chapter 5 Ionic Chain-Reaction and Complex Coordination Polymerization.......................... 149

5.1 Chain Growth Polymerization—General...................................................... 150
5.2 Cationic Polymerization ................................................................................ 150
5.3 Anionic Polymerization ................................................................................. 156
5.4 Stereoregularity ............................................................................................. 161
5.5 Polymerization with Complex Coordination Catalysts ................................. 161
5.6 Soluble Stereoregulating Catalysis ................................................................ 163
5.7 Polyethylenes ................................................................................................. 166
5.8 Polypropylene ................................................................................................ 172
5.9 Polymers from 1,4-Dienes ............................................................................. 175
5.10 Polyisobutylene .............................................................................................. 178
5.11 Metathesis Reactions ..................................................................................... 179
5.12 Zwitterionic Polymerization .......................................................................... 179
5.13 Isomerization Polymerization........................................................................ 180
5.14 Precipitation Polymerization ......................................................................... 180
5.15 Summary ....................................................................................................... 181

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 Contents xiii

Glossary .................................................................................................................... 182

Exercises ................................................................................................................... 183
Additional Reading .................................................................................................. 185

Chapter 6 Free Radical Chain Polymerization (Addition Polymerization) .............................. 187

6.1 Initiators for Free Radical Chain Polymerization ......................................... 187
6.2 Mechanism for Free Radical Chain Polymerization ..................................... 191
6.3 Chain Transfer ............................................................................................... 197
6.4 Polymerization Techniques ...........................................................................200
6.5 Fluorine-Containing Polymers ......................................................................204
6.6 Polystyrene ....................................................................................................208
6.7 Poly(Vinyl Chloride) ..................................................................................... 210
6.8 Poly(Methyl Methacrylate) ............................................................................ 213
6.9 Poly(Vinyl Alcohol) and Poly(Vinyl Acetate) ............................................... 215
6.10 Polyacrylonitrile ............................................................................................ 216
6.11 Solid-State Irradiation Polymerization .......................................................... 217
6.12 Plasma Polymerizations................................................................................. 218
6.13 Summary ....................................................................................................... 218
Glossary .................................................................................................................... 219
Exercises ................................................................................................................... 220
Additional Reading .................................................................................................. 221

Chapter 7 Copolymerization ..................................................................................................... 223

7.1 Kinetics of Copolymerization ....................................................................... 223
7.2 Q-e Scheme ................................................................................................... 228
7.3 Commercial Copolymers ............................................................................... 229
7.4 Block Copolymers ......................................................................................... 230
7.5 Graft Copolymers .......................................................................................... 232
7.6 Elastomers ..................................................................................................... 233
7.7 Thermoplastic Elastomers ............................................................................. 236
7.8 Blends ............................................................................................................ 237
7.8.1 Immiscible Blends ............................................................................ 238
7.8.2 Miscible Blends ................................................................................ 239
7.9 Fluoroelastomers ........................................................................................... 241
7.10 Nitrile Rubber ................................................................................................ 241
7.11 Acrylonitrile–Butadiene–Styrene Terpolymers ............................................ 242
7.12 EPDM Rubber ............................................................................................... 243
7.13 Networks—General....................................................................................... 243
7.14 Polymer Mixtures ..........................................................................................244
7.15 Dendrites ....................................................................................................... 245
7.16 Ionomers ........................................................................................................ 247
7.17 Viscosity Modifiers ....................................................................................... 249
7.18 Summary ....................................................................................................... 251
Glossary .................................................................................................................... 252
Exercises ................................................................................................................... 253
Additional Reading .................................................................................................. 254

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 xiv Contents

Chapter 8 Composites and Fillers ............................................................................................. 257

8.1 Fillers ............................................................................................................. 257
8.2 Types of Composites...................................................................................... 259
8.3 Long-Fiber Composites—Theory..................................................................260
8.4 Fibers and Resins........................................................................................... 262
8.5 Long-Fiber Composites—Applications .........................................................264
8.6 Nanocomposites............................................................................................. 268
8.7 Fabrication ..................................................................................................... 270
8.7.1 Processing of Fiber-Reinforced Composites .................................... 271
8.7.2 Structural Composites ...................................................................... 271
8.7.3 Laminating ....................................................................................... 272
8.7.4 Particulate......................................................................................... 272
8.8 Metal-Matrix Composites.............................................................................. 272
8.9 Summary ....................................................................................................... 276
Glossary .................................................................................................................... 276
Exercises ................................................................................................................... 277
Additional Reading .................................................................................................. 277

Chapter 9 Naturally Occurring Polymers—Plants ................................................................... 279

9.1 Polysaccharides .............................................................................................280
9.2 Cellulose ........................................................................................................ 282
9.3 Paper ..............................................................................................................284
9.4 Cellulose-Regenerating Processes ................................................................. 286
9.5 Esters and Ethers of Cellulose ....................................................................... 288
9.5.1 Inorganic Esters................................................................................ 288
9.5.2 Organic Esters .................................................................................. 288
9.5.3 Organic Ethers..................................................................................290
9.6 Starch ............................................................................................................. 292
9.7 Homopolysaccharides.................................................................................... 294
9.7.1 Fructans ............................................................................................ 296
9.7.2 Chitin and Chitosan.......................................................................... 297
9.7.3 Others ............................................................................................... 298
9.8 Heteropolysaccharides ................................................................................... 299
9.9 Synthetic Rubbers ..........................................................................................302
9.10 Naturally Occurring Polyisoprenes ...............................................................307
9.11 Resins ............................................................................................................ 310
9.12 Balloons ......................................................................................................... 311
9.13 Lignin ............................................................................................................ 312
9.14 Melanins ........................................................................................................ 313
9.15 Asphalt ........................................................................................................... 315
9.16 Summary ....................................................................................................... 315
Glossary .................................................................................................................... 316
Exercises ................................................................................................................... 317
Additional Reading .................................................................................................. 318

Chapter 10 Naturally Occurring Polymers—Animals ............................................................... 321

10.1 Proteins .......................................................................................................... 322
10.2 Levels of Protein Structure ............................................................................ 325

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 Contents xv

10.2.1 Primary Structure............................................................................. 326

10.2.2 Secondary Structure ......................................................................... 326
10.2.3 Keratines .......................................................................................... 327
10.2.3.1 Silk .................................................................................... 329
10.2.3.2 Wool .................................................................................. 330
10.2.4 Collagen............................................................................................ 331
10.2.5 Elastin ............................................................................................... 332
10.2.6 Tertiary Structure ............................................................................. 332
10.2.7 Globular Proteins ............................................................................. 332
10.2.8 Fibrous Proteins................................................................................ 334
10.2.9 Membrane Proteins .......................................................................... 335
10.2.10 Quaternary Structure........................................................................ 335
10.3 Nucleic Acids ................................................................................................. 338
10.4 Flow of Biological Information ..................................................................... 342
10.5 RNA Interference ..........................................................................................344
10.6 Polymer Structure ..........................................................................................346
10.7 Protein Folding .............................................................................................. 349
10.8 Genetic Engineering ...................................................................................... 351
10.9 DNA Profiling ............................................................................................... 354
10.10 Human Genome—General............................................................................ 356
10.11 Chromosomes ................................................................................................ 361
10.12 Spliceosomes ................................................................................................. 372
10.13 Proteomics ..................................................................................................... 373
10.14 Protein Site Activity Identification ................................................................ 374
10.15 Summary ....................................................................................................... 375
Glossary .................................................................................................................... 375
Exercises ................................................................................................................... 378
Additional Reading .................................................................................................. 379

Chapter 11 Organometallic and Inorganic–Organic Polymers .................................................. 381

11.1 Introduction ................................................................................................... 381
11.2 Inorganic Reaction Mechanisms ................................................................... 383
11.3 Condensation Organometallic Polymers ....................................................... 384
11.3.1 Polysiloxanes .................................................................................... 385
11.3.2 Organotin and Related Condensation Polymers............................... 388
11.4 Coordination Polymers .................................................................................. 390
11.4.1 Platinum-Containing Polymers ........................................................ 392
11.5 Addition Polymers ......................................................................................... 393
11.5.1 Ferrocene-Containing and Related Polymers .................................. 395
11.5.2 Polyphosphazenes and Related Polymers ........................................ 397
11.5.3 Boron-Containing Polymers............................................................. 398
11.6 Ion-Exchange Resins ..................................................................................... 399
11.7 Summary ....................................................................................................... 401
Glossary .................................................................................................................... 401
Exercises ................................................................................................................... 401
Additional Reading ..................................................................................................402

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 xvi Contents

Chapter 12 Inorganic Polymers ..................................................................................................405

12.1Introduction ...................................................................................................405
12.2Portland Cement ............................................................................................405
12.3Other Cements ...............................................................................................408
12.4Silicates..........................................................................................................408
12.4.1 Network ............................................................................................ 411
12.4.2 Layer ................................................................................................. 411
12.4.3 Chain ................................................................................................ 412
12.5 Silicon Dioxide (Amorphous) ........................................................................ 412
12.6 Kinds of Amorphous Glass ........................................................................... 415
12.7 Safety Glass ................................................................................................... 416
12.8 Lenses ............................................................................................................ 418
12.9 Sol-Gel ........................................................................................................... 420
12.10 Aerogels ......................................................................................................... 421
12.11 Silicon Dioxide (Crystalline Forms)—Quartz Forms ................................... 423
12.12 Silicon Dioxide in Electronic Chips .............................................................. 424
12.13 Silicon Dioxide in Optical Fibers .................................................................. 425
12.14 Asbestos ......................................................................................................... 426
12.15 Fly Ash and Aluminosilicates ....................................................................... 427
12.16 Polymeric Carbon—Diamond ....................................................................... 429
12.17 Polymeric Carbon—Graphite ....................................................................... 429
12.18 Internal Cyclization—Carbon Fibers and Related Materials........................ 431
12.19 Carbon Nanotubes ......................................................................................... 432
12.19.1 Structures ......................................................................................... 433
12.20 Bitumens ........................................................................................................ 438
12.21 Carbon Black ................................................................................................. 439
12.22 Polysulfur ......................................................................................................440
12.23 Ceramics ........................................................................................................ 441
12.24 High-Temperature Superconductors .............................................................. 443
12.24.1 Discovery of the 123-Compound ..................................................... 443
12.24.2 Structure of the 123-Compound....................................................... 443
12.25 Zeolites .......................................................................................................... 443
12.26 Summary ....................................................................................................... 445
Glossary ....................................................................................................................446
Exercises ................................................................................................................... 447
Additional Reading ..................................................................................................448

Chapter 13 Testing and Spectrometric Characterization of Polymers........................................449

13.1 Spectronic Characterization of Polymers ...................................................... 450
13.1.1 Infrared Spectroscopy ...................................................................... 450
13.1.2 Raman Spectroscopy ........................................................................ 451
13.1.3 NMR Spectroscopy .......................................................................... 451
13.1.4 NMR Applications ........................................................................... 453
13.1.5 Electron Paramagnetic Resonance Spectroscopy ............................ 454
13.1.6 X-Ray Spectroscopy ......................................................................... 454
13.2 Surface Characterization ............................................................................... 454
13.2.1 Auger Electron Spectroscopy and X-Ray Photoelectron
Spectroscopy .................................................................................... 455
13.2.2 Near-Field Scanning Optical Microscopy ........................................ 455

K10478.indb xvi 9/14/2010 3:35:44 PM

 Contents xvii

13.2.3 Electron Microscopy ........................................................................ 456

13.2.4 SPM .................................................................................................. 456
13.2.5 Secondary Ion Mass Spectroscopy .................................................. 459
13.3 Amorphous Region Determinations .............................................................. 459
13.4 Mass Spectrometry ........................................................................................460
13.5 Thermal Analysis .......................................................................................... 461
13.6 Thermal Property Tests ................................................................................. 463
13.6.1 Softening Range ............................................................................... 463
13.6.2 Heat Deflection Temperature ........................................................... 463
13.6.3 Glass Transition Temperatures .........................................................464
13.6.4 Thermal Conductivity ......................................................................465
13.6.5 Thermal Expansion ..........................................................................466
13.7 Flammability .................................................................................................466
13.8 Electrical Properties: Theory ........................................................................466
13.9 Electric Measurements ..................................................................................469
13.9.1 Dielectric Constant ...........................................................................469
13.9.2 Electrical Resistance ........................................................................ 470
13.9.3 Dissipation Factor and Power Loss .................................................. 470
13.9.4 Electrical Conductivity and Dielectric Strength .............................. 470
13.10 Optical Properties Tests................................................................................. 472
13.10.1 Index of Refraction ......................................................................... 472
13.10.2 Optical Clarity ................................................................................ 473
13.10.3 Absorption and Reflectance ............................................................ 473
13.11 Weatherability ............................................................................................... 473
13.12 Chemical Resistance...................................................................................... 474
13.13 Measurement of Particle Size ........................................................................ 475
13.14 Measurement of Adhesion ............................................................................. 476
13.15 Permeability and Diffusion ........................................................................... 477
13.16 Summary ....................................................................................................... 478
Glossary .................................................................................................................... 479
Exercises ...................................................................................................................480
Additional Reading ..................................................................................................480

Chapter 14 Rheology and Physical Tests .................................................................................... 483

14.1 Rheology........................................................................................................ 483
14.1.1 Rheology and Physical Tests ............................................................ 486
14.1.2 Response Time ................................................................................. 489
14.2 Typical Stress–Strain Behavior ..................................................................... 489
14.3 Stress–Strain Relationships ........................................................................... 492
14.4 Specific Physical Tests ................................................................................... 494
14.4.1 Tensile Strength ................................................................................ 494
14.4.2 Tensile Strength of Inorganic and Metallic Fibers and Whiskers.... 496
14.4.3 Compressive Strength....................................................................... 497
14.4.4 Impact Strength ................................................................................ 497
14.4.5 Hardness ........................................................................................... 499
14.4.5.1 Brinell Hardness ............................................................... 499
14.4.5.2 Rockwell Hardness ........................................................... 499
14.4.6 Shear Strength .................................................................................. 501
14.4.7 Abrasion Resistance ......................................................................... 501
14.4.8 Failure............................................................................................... 501

K10478.indb xvii 9/14/2010 3:35:44 PM

 xviii Contents

14.5 Summary ....................................................................................................... 502

Glossary .................................................................................................................... 503
Exercises ...................................................................................................................504
Additional Reading ..................................................................................................504

Chapter 15 Additives...................................................................................................................507
15.1 Plasticizers .....................................................................................................507
15.2 Antioxidants .................................................................................................. 511
15.3 Heat Stabilizers ............................................................................................. 512
15.4 UV Stabilizers ............................................................................................... 513
15.5 Flame Retardants........................................................................................... 513
15.6 Colorants........................................................................................................ 515
15.7 Curing Agents................................................................................................ 515
15.8 Antistatic Agents—Antistats ......................................................................... 516
15.9 Chemical Blowing Agents ............................................................................. 516
15.10 Compatibilizers ............................................................................................. 517
15.11 Impact Modifiers ........................................................................................... 517
15.12 Processing Aids ............................................................................................. 517
15.13 Lubricants ...................................................................................................... 517
15.14 Microorganism Inhibitors.............................................................................. 517
15.15 Summary ....................................................................................................... 518
Glossary .................................................................................................................... 518
Exercises ................................................................................................................... 519
Additional Reading .................................................................................................. 520

Chapter 16 Reactions on Polymers ............................................................................................. 521

16.1Reactions with Polyolefines and Polyenes ..................................................... 521
16.2Reactions of Aromatic and Aliphatic Pendant Groups ................................. 522
16.3Degradation ................................................................................................... 523
16.4Cross-Linking ................................................................................................ 525
16.5Reactivities of End Groups ............................................................................ 527
16.6Supramolecules and Self-Assembly .............................................................. 528
16.7Transfer and Retention of Oxygen ................................................................. 535
16.8Nature’s Macromolecular Catalysts............................................................... 538
16.9Photosynthesis ............................................................................................... 543
16.9.1 Purple Photosynthetic Bacteria ........................................................544
16.9.2 Green Sulfur Bacteria ...................................................................... 545
16.10 Mechanisms of Physical Energy Absorption ................................................546
16.11 Breakage of Polymeric Materials .................................................................. 548
16.12 Summary ....................................................................................................... 549
Glossary .................................................................................................................... 550
Exercises ................................................................................................................... 550
Additional Reading .................................................................................................. 551

Chapter 17 Synthesis of Reactants and Intermediates for Polymers .......................................... 553

17.1 Monomer Synthesis from Basic Feedstocks .................................................. 553
17.2 Reactants for Step-Reaction Polymerization ................................................. 558
17.3 Synthesis of Vinyl Monomers .......................................................................564

K10478.indb xviii 9/14/2010 3:35:44 PM

 Contents xix

17.4 Synthesis of Free Radical Initiators .............................................................. 569

17.5 Summary ....................................................................................................... 571
Glossary .................................................................................................................... 571
Exercises ................................................................................................................... 571
Additional Reading .................................................................................................. 572

Chapter 18 Polymer Technology ................................................................................................. 573

18.1 Polymer Processing ....................................................................................... 573
18.2 Secondary Structures—Mesophases ............................................................. 575
18.3 Fibers ............................................................................................................. 576
18.3.1 Polymer Processing—Spinning and Fiber Production .................... 576
18.3.1.1 Introduction ...................................................................... 576
18.3.2 Melt Spinning ................................................................................... 577
18.3.3 Dry Spinning .................................................................................... 579
18.3.4 Wet Spinning .................................................................................... 579
18.3.5 Other Spinning Processes ................................................................ 580
18.4 Nonspinning Fiber Production ...................................................................... 581
18.4.1 Natural Fibers ................................................................................... 581
18.5 Elastomers ..................................................................................................... 582
18.5.1 Elastomer Processing ....................................................................... 582
18.6 Films and Sheets............................................................................................ 584
18.6.1 Calendering ...................................................................................... 585
18.7 Polymeric Foams ........................................................................................... 586
18.8 Reinforced Plastics (Composites) and Laminates ......................................... 586
18.8.1 Composites ....................................................................................... 586
18.8.1.1 Particle-Reinforced Composites—Large-Particle
Composites ...................................................................... 587
18.8.1.2 Fiber-Reinforced Composites ........................................... 588
18.8.1.3 Processing of Fiber-Reinforced Composites .................... 588
18.8.1.4 Structural Composites ...................................................... 589
18.8.2 Laminating ....................................................................................... 589
18.9 Molding ......................................................................................................... 590
18.9.1 Injection Molding ............................................................................. 590
18.9.2 Blow Molding ................................................................................... 592
18.9.3 Rotational Molding........................................................................... 594
18.9.4 Compression and Transfer Molding ................................................. 594
18.9.5 Thermoforming ................................................................................ 596
18.10 Casting ........................................................................................................... 598
18.11 Extrusion ....................................................................................................... 598
18.12 Coatings ......................................................................................................... 599
18.12.1 Processing ....................................................................................... 601
18.12.1.1 Rainwear .......................................................................603
18.13 Adhesives .......................................................................................................603
18.14 Summary .......................................................................................................608
Glossary ....................................................................................................................609
Exercises ................................................................................................................... 610
Additional Reading .................................................................................................. 611

K10478.indb xix 9/14/2010 3:35:44 PM

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