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Published in 2010 by Britannica Educational Publishing
(a trademark of Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.)
in association with Rosen Educational Services, LLC
29 East 21st Street, New York, NY 10010.

Copyright © 2010 Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica,

and the Thistle logo are registered trademarks of Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. All
rights reserved.

Rosen Educational Services materials copyright © 2010 Rosen Educational Services, LLC.
All rights reserved.

Distributed exclusively by Rosen Educational Services.

For a listing of additional Britannica Educational Publishing titles, call toll free (800) 237-9932.

First Edition

Britannica Educational Publishing

Michael I. Levy: Executive Editor
Marilyn L. Barton: Senior Coordinator, Production Control
Steven Bosco: Director, Editorial Technologies
Lisa S. Braucher: Senior Producer and Data Editor
Yvette Charboneau: Senior Copy Editor
Kathy Nakamura: Manager, Media Acquisition
Laura Etheredge: Assistant Editor, Middle East Geography

Rosen Educational Services

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Joanne Randolph: Editor
Nelson Sá: Art Director
Nicole Russo: Designer
Introduction by Alexandra Hanson-Harding

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Islamic history / edited by Laura S. Etheredge.—1st ed.

p. cm.—(The Islamic world)
“In association with Rosen Educational Services.”
Includes index.
ISBN 978-1-61530-061-7 (eBook)
1. Islamic countries—History. 2. Civilization, Islamic. 3. Islam—History. I. Etheredge, Laura S.
DS35.63.I84 2010
909'.09767—dc22
2009037874

On the cover: The Ka‘bah is a small shrine near the centre of the Great Mosque in Mecca.
Considered by Muslims worldwide to be the most sacrad spot on Earth, it is the place to
which Muslims orient themselves during daily prayers. Shutterstock.com
 CONTENTS
Introduction 10

Chapter One:
The Precursors of Islam
(c. 3000 BCE–500 CE) 19
The Rise of Agrarian-Based
Citied Societies 21
Cultural Core Areas of the
Settled World 23
The Nile-to-Oxus Region 23
The Arabian Peninsula 25 21
Chapter Two:
Formation and Orientation
(c. 500–634) 29
The City of Mecca: Centre of
Trade and Religion 29
Mecca Under the
Quraysh Clans 30
New Social Patterns Among the
Meccans and Their Neighbours 33
The Prophet Muhammad 35
31
Muhammad’s Years in Mecca 35
Muhammad’s Emigration
to Yathrib (Medina) 39 41
Battle of Badr 43
Battle of the Ditch 45
Islam at Muhammad’s Death 46
Abu Bakr’s Succession 48
Riddah 49

Chapter Three:
Conversion and
Crystallization (634–870) 52
Social and Cultural
Transformations 52 62
‘Umar I’s Succession 55
The Spirit of Conquest Under
‘Umar I 55
Forging the Link of Activism
with Faithfulness 56
‘Uthman’s Succession and Policies 58
Discontent in ‘Uthman’s Reign 58
Intra-Muslim Conflicts 60
The Four Fitnahs 61
The First Fitnah 61
The Second Fitnah 63
Battle of Siffin 64
The Emergent Islamic
Civilization 67
Dome of the Rock 68
The Third Fitnah 73
Sunnis and Shi‘ites 77
The ‘Abbasids
Harun al-Rashid
80
82 79
Shari‘ah 85
The Fourth Fitnah 87
Al-Bukhari 91

Chapter Four:
Fragmentation and
Florescence (870–1041) 93
The Rise of Competitive Regions 93
Andalusia, the Maghrib, and
Sub-Saharan Africa 95
‘Abd al-Rahman I 96
Egypt, Syria, and the Holy Cities 100
The Fatimid Dynasty 100
Al-Azhar University 101
The Hamdanid Dynasty 103
Iraq 104
Cultural Flowering in Iraq 104
Al-Tabari 105
The Buyid Dynasty 108
Iran, Afghanistan, and India 113
The Samanids 113
The Ghaznavids 114
The Decline of the Caliphate and
Rise of Emirates 117

Chapter Five:
Migration and
Renewal (1041–1405) 119 115
Turks 120
Seljuq Turks
Policies of Nizam al-Mulk
120
122
130
Nizam al-Mulk 124
Tariqah Fellowships 126
Franks 127
The Call for the Crusades 127
Effects of the Crusades
in Syria 128
Saladin 131
Mongols 133
Genghis Khan
First Mongol Incursions
134
135 145
366
Conversion of Mongols
to Islam 137
Ascent of the Ottoman Turks 142
Timur’s Efforts to Restore
Mongol Power 143
Timur 144
Arabs 146
Imazighen 146
The Sanhajah Confederation 147
The Almoravid Dynasty 148
 The Almohad Dynasty
Continued Spread of Islamic
151
164
Influence 152

Chapter Six:
Consolidation and
Expansion (1405–1683) 156
Ottomans 159
Continuation of Ottoman Rule 159
Reign of Süleyman I 160
Süleyman I 161
The Extent of Ottoman
Administration 163
Safavids 165
Expansion in Iran and Beyond 166
Shah ‘Abbas I 168
Decline of Central Authority 170
Indo-Timurids (Mughals) 170
Foundation by Babur 170
Reign of Akbar 172
Continuation of the Empire 174
Shah Jahan 176
Trans-Saharan Islam 178
Indian Ocean Islam 181

Chapter Seven:
Islamic History from 1683 to the
Present: Reform, Dependency,
and Recovery 184
Pre-colonial Reform and
Experimentation (1683 to 1818) 186
The Rise of British Colonialism
to the End of the Ottoman
Empire 190
Islam and Nationalism in the Age of
Globalization (The Early 20th
Century to the Present) 193
175
 Reform and Revival in the
Colonial Period 193
Rashid Rida 195
Nationalism: Postcolonial
States and Islam 197
Muslim Brotherhood 198
Islamist Movements from
the 1960s 200
Ruhollah Khomeini 202
The Mainstreaming of Islamist
Movements 205
Dimensions of the Islamic
Revival 207 201
Islam and Globalization: The
Age of Mobility 209 211
Glossary 214
For Further Reading 216
Index 218
INTRODUCTION
 7 Introduction 7

A round 610 CE, a merchant meditating in a cave out-

side Mecca began to receive a series of revelations.
From that vision grew Islam, one of the world’s great
religions. What Islam’s prophet, Muhammad, began gave
rise to a number of mighty empires. Islam proved to be
such a powerful force that today, 1,400 years after a vision
appeared to the Prophet, it is the world’s second largest
religion. With more than one billion adherents, Islam has
deep roots in the Asia, Africa, and Europe. More than
half of today’s Muslims live in Asia alone, from Turkey to
Indonesia. Worldwide, a tremendous variety of people
follow Islam—from blue-eyed Bosnians to African
Americans to the Uighurs of western China. After four-
teen centuries, Islam remains one of the world’s
fastest-growing faiths.
But Islam, by virtue of extremist acts that pressed its
name into the consciousness of many as the 21st century
was just beginning, faces a new hurdle. With the terrorist
attacks of September 11, 2001 in the United States—and
subsequent attacks in Bali, London, Madrid, and else-
where—radical Islam seized global attention. The images,
headlines, and aftermath of each attack indelibly linked
those events with the name of Islam. In spite of the atten-
tion seized by Muslim extremists in recent history,
however, the broader history of Islam is one of astonishing
growth and great achievement. Islam itself is complex
and multifaceted, and its faithful have, over centuries,
been massively prolific in works of science, philosophy,
theology, and the arts. From the luminous symmetry of
the Taj Mahal to algebraic equations, from the tales of The
Thousand and One Nights to the collected works of poets
such as Rumi or Hafiz, Islam has provided a rich tapestry
of contributions to world culture.
What binds Muslims? Muslims believe in one God and
affirm Muhammad as His prophet. They hold Islam to be

11
 7 Islamic History 7

the third revelation of monotheism—after Judaism and

Christianity—and as such revere many of the prophets
honoured in Jewish and Christian tradition, including
Abraham, Noah, Moses, and Jesus. Muslims also share
several spiritual guides. One is the Qur’an, the sacred
scripture of Islam revealed by God to Muhammad and, for
all Muslims, the very word of God. Another is the Hadith,
the record of the traditions or sayings of the Prophet,
revered by Muslims as a major source of religious law
and moral guidance and second only to the authority of
the Qur’an.
Incumbent upon every Muslim are five duties known
collectively as the Five Pillars of Islam. First among these
is the recitation of a profession of faith called the shahadah
(“There is no god but God and Muhammad is His
prophet”), which must be recited by a Muslim at least once
in his or her lifetime. In addition, observant Muslims say
prayers five times a day, give to charity, fast during the holy
month of Ramadan, and, if they are able, make a pilgrim-
age to Mecca, Muhammad’s birthplace. In addition to the
Five Pillars, many Muslims around the world also study
the Qur’an.
In this book, you will learn why Arabia was such fer-
tile ground for the emergence of a new faith. In its
prehistorical period (3000 BCE–500 CE), the dry
Arabian Peninsula, most of which was unfavourable for
settled agriculture, derived great wealth from its prime
location at an important trade crossroads: caravans criss-
crossed the desert bringing goods from China, India, and
Africa in the East to trade as far as Spain in the West. For
hundreds of years, Arabia’s residents served as middle-
men in this trade; thus, although agricultural opportunity
may have been limited, commercial opportunity was
almost limitless.

12
 7 Introduction 7

In 570, Muhammad was born in Mecca, already an

important Arabian trading and religious centre, in what is
known as Islam’s formation and orientation period (500-
634 CE). Muhammad was a serious young man whose
parents had died when he was young; he was raised for a
short time by his grandfather, and then by his uncle, Abu
Talib. He later worked for a wealthy businesswoman
named Khadijah, whom he married at age 25. Full of spiri-
tual questions, Muhammad often sought the solitude of
the desert to think and pray. It was on one such trip that
the 40-year-old Muhammad had a revelation. The angel
Gabriel came to him, saying three times “Recite!” and told
Muhammad that he was the messenger of God. Muhammad
went home, relating to Khadijah what had happened. Soon
she became Islam’s first convert.
The revelations persisted, and after several years of
preaching to his family and friends, Muhammad started
delivering his revelations to others in the form of public
recitations. Although a number of prominent Meccans
became believers, many others harassed his supporters,
forcing some of them into a period of exile. During this
difficult time, Muhammad faced the deaths of two of his
dearest companions: Khadijah, his wife and confidant, as
well as his beloved uncle and protector, Abu Talib. And
yet, in spite of the challenges, Muhammad’s flock con-
tinued to grow. In 622 he moved his followers in small,
inconspicuous groups to the city of Yathrib (Medina) in
an emigration known as the Hijrah. In Medina
Muhammad established Islam as a religious and social
order. From there, Muhammad later led campaigns
against his opponents, including Mecca; by 629 he was
able to lead his followers on the first peaceful pilgrimage
to that city. He continued to receive revelations until his
death in 632.

13
 7 Islamic History 7

After the Prophet Muhammad’s passing, the Muslim

faithful learned to survive as a community in the period of
conversion and crystallization (634–870 CE). First, four
“rightly guided” caliphs, all friends or relatives of
Muhammad, ruled from 632 to 661. These leaders stretched
Islam’s borders by taking over Palestine, Egypt, Syria, and
parts of Iraq. They also organized the government.
One important event was a controversy over ‘Ali, the
pious cousin and son-in-law of Muhammad, who was
the last of these caliphs. ‘Ali faced many difficulties, includ-
ing the opposition of Mu‘awiyah, the governor of Syria.
But ‘Ali had supporters, too, called the Shi‘at ‘Ali, or
Partisans of ‘Ali. In 661, ‘Ali was murdered. After ‘Ali’s
assassination, Mu‘awiyah assumed the caliphate, founding
the Umayyad dynasty. That injustice—and later the murder
of ‘Ali’s son al-Husayn by Umayyad troops—angered the
Shi‘ites. They opposed the Umayyads’ more secular rule
and decided to follow spiritual leaders called imams. Thus
began a separation between two branches of Islam: the
Sunni, who make up 85 percent of Muslims today, and the
Shi‘ah, who constitute the remainder.
Meanwhile, the Umayyad empire flourished. The
Umayyads, who ruled from Damascus, Syria, expanded
their empire all the way from the western Mediterranean
into Central Asia. They also made use of the dhimmi sys-
tem in managing their heterogenous empire. Under this
arrangement, Jews and Christians were not forced to con-
vert to Islam, but they did have to pay a special tax for
living in the empire. This way, the empire encouraged but
did not force religious conversion. In fact, most of the
future Islamic empires had systems in place that made
room for religious minorities in their midst. In many of
these empires, Christians and Jews would even have
privileged places in the government and the military. In

14
 7 Introduction 7

750 a new dynasty, the ‘Abbasids, overthrew the Umayyads

and began to rule from a new capital city, Baghdad.
During the period of fragmentation and florescence
(flowering) that took place between 870 and 1041, the
‘Abbasid empire became a centre for art and science. After
Chinese papermakers were captured in battle in 751,
Muslim artisans learned how to make paper for books.
Literature spread quickly. Great works were translated
from ancient Greek, Sanskrit, Syriac, and other languages
into Arabic. These new ideas encouraged the development
of schools of philosophy (falsafah, adapting the word from
Greek). Muslim scholars made contributions to the sci-
ences in fields such as algebra, astronomy, botany,
chemistry, and medicine. They became experts at map-
making and navigation. Over time, regional dynasties
began to develop, too, such as the Fatimids, who captured
Egypt and created a new capital, Cairo.
Although Islam was blooming, it faced obstacles and
hostilities that ultimately caused it to redirect and thrive
in new ways. During the period of migration and renewal,
from 1041 to 1405, broad in-migration and assimilation
played an especially crucial role. As part of this trend, a
number of Muslim cities were attacked by outsiders.
Christian Crusaders captured Jerusalem, a city holy to
Christians, Muslims, and Jews, in 1099. The Crusaders
were finally forced from Jerusalem by Saladin, a powerful
Muslim leader, in 1187. In 1258, the Mongols—pagan,
horse-riding tribes of the Central Asian steppe—invaded
Baghdad, where they slaughtered hundreds of thousands
of residents and terminated the caliphate. Ironically, after
several generations, the Mongols themselves converted to
Islam, spreading the faith across their vast empire.
Three powerful empires rose during the period of con-
solidation and expansion (1405–1683). Babur, a descendent

15
 7 Islamic History 7

of Mongol leader Genghis Khan, started taking over India

in 1519, founding the Mughal dynasty. At its greatest extent,
the Mughal empire covered most of the Indian subconti-
nent. Mughal ruler Shah Jahan had the Taj Mahal, one of
the architectural wonders of the world, built in memory
of the favourite of his three wives.
By contrast, the Shi‘ite Safavid dynasty had its origins
in a Sufi brotherhood in northwestern Iran. After win-
ning the support of local Turkish tribesmen and other
disaffected groups, the Safavids were able to expand
throughout Iran and into parts of Iraq.
Meanwhile, in what is now Turkey, the Ottoman
Empire was on the march. The Ottoman dynasty, which
had started at the turn of the 14th century, conquered
lands in the Middle East and in Europe, including Hungary,
Serbia, Romania, and Bosnia. In 1453 the Ottomans cap-
tured Constantinople from the Byzantine Empire and
turned it into the new capital, Istanbul. The Ottoman
Empire’s trade ships controlled much of the Mediterranean
Sea. The Ottomans had a sophisticated culture and made
alliances with European powers such as France and Great
Britain. Then, in 1683, the Ottomans reached a limit. In
that year, they invaded Austria, penetrating all the way to
Vienna, where their ambitious campaign failed. It was a
turning point, and a telling marker for the future.
As the Islamic world entered its next phase, reform,
dependency, and recovery (1683 to the present), it faced a
new challenge—the rising power of Europe.
In the 1800s the British took over India as a colony,
finally snuffing out the crumbling Mughal empire. The
Ottoman Empire survived longer, but over time it weak-
ened as well. As it did, colonial powers such as France and
Britain took control, both directly and indirectly, of more
and more territory in Africa, Asia, and the Middle East.

16
 7 Introduction 7

Western powers grew increasingly interested in influenc-

ing the Middle East when they learned of the vast stores
of oil that lay underneath such countries as Iran, Iraq, and
Saudi Arabia. Eventually, colonized lands became new
countries, in some cases more constructs than organic
nations, with arbitrary boundaries and markedly different
groups of people suddenly designated as countrymen.
Such acts led to many questions about what kind of iden-
tity should matter most—national or religious.
As you read this book you will learn much more about
the Islamic world. You will have the opportunity to explore
the perils and promise of great empires, to discover a pro-
found and diverse cultural heritage, and to learn what
unites and separates different branches of the Islamic
faith. And you will gain a new perspective on one of the
world’s greatest and most enduring religions.

17
 CHAPTER 1
THE PRECURSORS
OF ISLAM
(M83000 BCE–500 CE)

A dherence to Islam is a global phenomenon: Muslims

predominate in some 30 to 40 countries, from the
Atlantic eastward to the Pacific and along a belt that
stretches across northern Africa into Central Asia and
south to the northern regions of the Indian subcontinent.
Although many in the West consider Arabs and Muslims
synonymous, Arabs account for fewer than one-fifth of all
Muslims, more than half of whom live east of Karachi,
Pakistan. Despite the absence of large-scale Islamic politi-
cal entities, the Islamic faith continues to expand, by some
estimates faster than any other major religion.
A very broad perspective is required to explain the
history of today’s Islamic world. This approach must
enlarge upon conventional political or dynastic divi-
sions to draw a comprehensive picture of the stages by
which successive Muslim communities, throughout
Islam’s 14 centuries, encountered and incorporated new
peoples so as to produce an international religion and
civilization.

19
 7 Islamic History 7

In general, events referred to here are dated according

to the Gregorian calendar, and eras are designated BCE
(before the Common Era or Christian Era) and CE
(Common Era or Christian Era), terms which are equivalent
to BC (before Christ) and AD (Latin: anno Domini). In
some cases the Muslim reckoning of the Islamic era is
used, indicated by AH (Latin: anno Hegirae). The Islamic
era begins with the date of Muhammad’s emigration
(Hijrah) to Medina, which corresponds to July 16, 622 CE,
in the Gregorian calendar.
The term Islamic refers to Islam as a religion. The term
Islamicate refers to the social and cultural complex that is
historically associated with Islam and the Muslims, even
when found among non-Muslims. Islamdom refers to that
complex of societies in which the Muslims and their faith
have been prevalent and socially dominant.
The prehistory of Islamdom is the history of central
Afro-Eurasia from Hammurabi of Babylon to the
Achaemenid Cyrus II in Persia to Alexander the Great to
the Sasanian emperor Nushirvan to Muhammad in
Arabia; or, in a Muslim view, from Adam to Noah to
Abraham to Moses to Jesus to Muhammad. The potential
for Muslim empire building was established with the rise
of the earliest civilizations in western Asia. It was refined
with the emergence and spread of what have been called
the region’s Axial Age religions—Abrahamic, centred
on the Hebrew patriarch Abraham, and Mazdean,
focused on the Iranian deity Ahura Mazda—and their later
relative, Christianity. It was facilitated by the expansion of
trade from eastern Asia to the Mediterranean and by the
political changes thus effected. The Muslims were heirs to
the ancient Egyptians, Babylonians, Persians, Hebrews,
even the Greeks and Indians; the societies they created
bridged time and space, from ancient to modern and from
east to west.

20
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