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 Plastic
Deformation
of
Nanostructured
Materials
 Plastic
Deformation
of
Nanostructured
Materials

A. M. Glezer
E. V. Kozlov
N. A. Koneva
N. A. Popova
I. A. Kurzina
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
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Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742

© 2017 by CISP
CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business

No claim to original U.S. Government works

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Contents

Contents
Introduction ix

1. Stages of plastic deformation of poly4crystalline materials 1

1.1. Introduction. Description of the problem 1
1.2. Main stages of plastic deformation of polycrystals at
the mesolevel 2
1.3. Determination of the plastic deformation stages in FCC
metals and solid solutions 3
1.4. Some historical data for the determination of the stages
II–IV of plastic deformation in polycrystalline materials 4
1.5. Individual stages of plastic deformation in the BCC
metals and alloys 5
1.6. Storage of dislocations, internal stress fields and evolution
of the dislocation structure 8
1.7. Evolution of the substructure – the basics of the physics of
stages in gliding of total dislocations 14
1.8. Transition to twinning and deformation martensitic
transformation as an important factor of formation of stages
of work hardening 17
1.9. Localisation of deformation – another reason for the formation
of new stages 17
1.10. Factors complicating the characteristics of the deformation
stages in meso-polycrystals 19
1.11. Effect of the mesograin size on the individual stages of
plastic deformation 20
1.12. Changes of the structure of the polycrystalline aggregate and
the pattern of the deformation stages with a decrease of the
average grain size 23
1.13. The main factors determining the stages of deformation and
the value of the work hardening coefficient in the microrange 25
1.14. Problem of determination of the grain size at the microlevel 28
1.15. Identification of plastic deformation stages at the microlevel 29
1.16. The stress σ–strain ε dependence for copper polycrystals with
different nanograin sizes 31
1.17. Relationships of work hardening of copper micropolycrystals
with different grain sizes 32
vi Contents

1.18. Hardening mechanisms and special features of the individual

stages of deformation of polycrystals with nanograins 37
1.19. Effect of different hardening mechanisms on the flow stress
and the form of the σ = (ε) dependence 38
1.20. Basic pattern of work hardening of nanocrystals 43
1.21. Effect of the grain size on the parameters of plastic
deformation stages 44

2. The structure and mechanical properties of nanocrystals 50

2.1. Introduction 50
2.2. Classification of polycrystals on the basis of the grain size 15
2.3. Methods for producing ultrafine-grained and nanograin
polycrystalline materials 53
2.4. The structure of polycrystalline materials 54
2.5. Triple junctions in grains 58
2.6. Models of polycrystalline grains at the meso- and microlevel 68
2.7. The structure of individual nanograins 77
2.8. Special features of the structure of the nanopolycrystalline
aggregate as a consequence of high plastic strains 80
2.9. Dependence of the dislocation density on the grain size and
the problem of fine grains without dislocations 82
2.10. Critical size ranges of the grains and areas with grains 85
2.11. The Hall–Petch relation and its parameter σ 0 in a wide grain
size range 86
2.12. The mechanisms of implementation of the Hall–Petch relation at
the mesolevel 86
2.13. Dependence of coefficient k on the grain size in the
Hall–Petch relation 90
2.14. Problem of the transition of coefficient k to negative value.
The first critical grain size 95
2.5. Mechanisms of realisation of the Hall–Petch relation at
the microlevel 101
2.16. Mechanisms providing contribution to the grain boundary
sliding process 105
2.17. The number of dislocations in the shear zone and the stress,
required for the formation of this zone 105
2.18. Contact stresses. Conventional and accommodation sliding 109
2.19. Conclusion 114

3. Main components of the dislocation structure and the role

of the dimensional factor 120
3.1. Problem of classification of dislocation structure components 120
3.1.1. Components of the dislocation structure 120
Contents vii

3.1.2. Strain gradient, the density of geometrically necessary and

excess dislocations 121
3.1.3. Grain size and the density of geometrically necessary
dislocations 122
3.1.4. Methods of measuring the density of geometrically
necessary dislocations 123
3.2. The scalar density of dislocations in dislocation fragments
with different types of substructure 126
3.2.1. Dependence of the dislocation density on the grain size in
ultrafine-grained polycrystals 128
3.2.2. Critical grain sizes 129
3.2.3. Geometrically necessary and statistically stored dislocations,
the second and third critical grain sizes. Comparison of the
parameters of the micro- and mesolevel 135
3.3. Dependence of the scalar density of the dislocations on the size
of the fragments with the network dislocation substructure
in a martensitic steel 139
3.4. Dependence of dislocation density on the size of fragments
with the cellular dislocation substructure in the martensitic
steel 142
3.5. Effect of the size of the fragments of grains and on the
density of defects in metallic materials 145
3.5.1. Similarity of the dimensional relationships in ultrafine-
grained polycrystals of metals and steels with a
fragmented structure 148
3.5.2. Dependence of the density of partial disclinations on the
grain size 151
3.5.3. Particles of second phases, dislocations and boundaries of
grains and fragments 155
3.5.4. Plastic deformation and nanoparticles of second phases
in microcrystalline metals 156
3.5.5. Fragmented dislocation substructure in martensitic steels and
second phase microparticles 157
3.5.6. Mechanisms of formation of second phase particles at the
boundaries of elements of the microstructure 158
3.5.7. Stabilisation of the structure of microcrystals by second
phase particles 159
3.6. The role of geometrically necessary dislocations in the
formation of deformation substructures 162
3.7. Storage of geometrically necessary dislocations and scalar
dislocation density. The role of boundaries of different type 168
3.8. Concentration dependence of the main parameters of the
dislocation structure in the FCC solid solutions 171
3.9. Cellular substructure: dislocation density ρ S and ρ G and the
cell size 172
viii Contents

4. Dislocation structure and internal stress fields 178

4.1. Introduction 178
4.2. Methods for measuring internal stresses 179
4.3. Structure of ultrafine-grained metals and alloys 184
4.4. Sources of internal stress fields in ultrafine-grained materials 193
4.5. Distribution of internal stresses in grains. The scheme of the
grains of ultrafine-grained materials 200
4.6. Conclusions 204

5. Severe plastic deformation 208

5.1. Introduction 208
5.2. Terminology 210
5.3. Structural models 211
5.4. Energy principles of the mechanical effect on the solid 214
5.5. Low-temperature dynamic recrystallisation 217
5.6. Amorphisation and crystallisation during SPD 225
5.7. Effect of the divisibility and direction of deformation 250
5.8. The principle of cyclicity in severe plastic deformation 257
5.9. Conclusions 264

6. Effect of ion implantation on structural state, phase

composition and the strength of modified metal surfaces 268
6.1. Introduction 268
6.2. Effect of ion implantation on the structure of titanium alloys 270
6.3. Distribution of implanted elements in the thickness of the
implanted layer of titanium alloys 275
6.4. Effect of ion implantation on the phase composition of the
surface layers of titanium alloys 278
6.5. Modification of the physical–mechanical properties of titanium
alloys by the ion implantation conditions 292

7. Grain boundary engineering and superhigh strength

of nanocrystals 305

Conclusion 315
Index 317
Introduction ix

Introduction
The mechanical properties of materials are the basis of technical
progress in various areas of engineering, instrument making,
aerospace technology, nuclear technologies and many other aspects
of human activity. Recently, the effort of materials scientists and
other experts has resulted in the development of new approaches to
increasing the strength and ductility of advanced structural materials.
A special position is occupied by nanotechnologies capable of
changing qualitative the mechanical behaviour of nanomaterials as
a result of extensive dispersion of the structure. It has been shown
that a large decrease of the grain size of the polycrystalline materials
and the corresponding large increase of the bulk density of the
grain boundaries greatly change the behaviour of dislocations – the
main carriers of plastic flow and, consequently, the mechanisms of
elastic deformation and the associated mechanical properties. A
large number of scientific articles concerned with the effect of the
small size of the crystals on the dislocation mechanisms of plastic
deformation has been published in recent years. Undoubtedly, it is
now time to publish the results and generalise the most important
data.
The Russian literature contains a number of excellent
monographs written by Russian and foreign scientists and devoted
to the dislocation and disclination physics of plastic deformation
of polycrystalline materials. Without pretending that this list is
complete, one should mention first of all the monograph by R.W.K.
Honeycombe ‘Plastic deformation of materials’ (1972), V.I. Trefilov,
Yu.V. Mil’man and S.A. Firstov ‘Physical fundamentals of the
strength of refractory metals’ (1975), V.E. Panin ‘Structural levels
of deformation of solids’ (1985), V.V. Rybin ‘High plastic strains
and fracture or metals’ (1986), O.A. Kaibyshev and R.Z. Valiev ‘The
grain boundaries and properties of metals’ (1987), M.A. Shtremel’
‘The strength of alloys’ (in two parts, 1997) and a number of others.
x Introduction

Unfortunately, these monographs do not pay attention to the evolution

of the mechanisms of dislocation flow at relatively small grain sizes
(smaller than 1 µm). In the list of the monographs and reviews it is
important to mention in particular books by K. Koch ‘Constructional
nanocrystalline materials’ (2012) and M.Yu. Gitkin and I.A. Ovid’ko
‘Physical mechanics of deformed nanostructures’ (2003), and also
a review by R.A. Andrievskii and A.M. Glezer ‘The strength of
nanostructures’ in the journal Uspekhi fizicheskikh nauk (2009). The
first of them is concerned mainly with the methods for producing
constructional materials, their thermal stability and description of
the mechanical and corrosion properties. As regards the plastic
deformation mechanisms of nanomaterials, they are studied mostly
from the viewpoint of computer simulation and do not describe
the relationships observed in actual experiments. The latter also
applies to a large extent to the second of the previously mentioned
publications.
What is the subject of this book? The book examines in detail
and systematically the special features of the mechanical behaviour
and corresponding structural mechanisms of the behaviour of crystal
structure defects with a decrease of the grain size in a polycrystalline
ensemble in a stage preceding the nanolevel (from 1 µm to 100
nm) and in the nanosize range (less then 100 nm). Attention is
given to the deformation behaviour of ‘large’ nanocrystals using the
terminology proposed in [1] when the plastic deformation takes place
by the nucleation, interaction and annihilation of the dislocations, up
to ‘middle sized’ nanocrystals where the controlling role is played
by the processes of grain boundary sliding.
This book is the result of 20 years of joint studies by researchers
in Tomsk and Moscow, concerned with the strength of materials.
The first chapter examines the stages of strain hardening of the
polycrystals having different crystal lattices, and the effect of the
dimensional factor on this process. The strain hardening pattern
is examined on two structural levels (microscopic and the so-
called mesoscopic level). The chapter also describes the condition
of transition from dislocation sliding to twinning and martensitic
transformation. The second chapter generalises the relationships
governing the formation of dislocation structures in the deformed
polycrystals and describes the mechanical properties under the effect
of the change of the grain size (the Hall – Petch relation and its
anomaly). Special attention is given to the conditions of transition
from dislocation slip to grain boundary sliding with a decrease of
Introduction xi

the grain size. The third chapter contains the results of a detailed
analysis of the main components of the dislocation structure from
the viewpoint of the geometrically necessary and statistically stored
dislocations. The concept of the critical grain size is introduced.
The role of the inclusions of the second phase is evaluated. The
fourth chapter examines the internal stress fields formed during the
dislocation plastic flow. The methods for evaluating these fields and
special features of the evolution in dependence on the grain size
are outlined. The fifth chapter is concerned with the nature of high
strain (severe) processes actively studied at present. The ‘roadmap’
of possible structure formation processes, observed at gigantic plastic
strains, is described for the first time in the scientific literature. The
important role of the cyclic processes of low-temperature dynamic
recrystallisation and phase transformations, including amorphisation
and crystallisation during deformation, is stressed. The sixth chapter
uses titanium as an example to describe the structure and mechanical
properties of modified surface layers of materials produced by ion
implantation. It is shown that the target can be greatly strengthened
by developing nanostructured phases of different nature formed
during implantation with different ions.
We believe that this monograph can fill the existing gap in the
publications concerned with the structural mechanisms of plastic
deformation of ultrafine-grained and nanostructured materials which
are of considerable scientific and applied interest at the moment.
We hope that the book will be useful to scientists, engineers, post
graduate students and others working in the problems of physics
of strength and development of highly efficient constructional
multifunctional materials.
We would be happy to receive any comments and wishes directed
at improving the quality of the book and its importance for advanced
materials science.

Reference
1. Glezer A.M., Structural classification of nanomaterials. Deformatsiya i razrushenie
materialov. 2010. No. 2. 1-18.
xii Introduction
Stages of Plastic Deformation of Polycrystalline Materials 1

Stages of plastic deformation of

polycrystalline materials
1.1. Introduction. Description of the problem

Different plastic deformation processes (tensile loading, compression,

rolling, extrusion, creep, fracture) are usually characterised by
distinctive stages. Of these stages of active deformation, uniaxial
tension and compression have been studied most extensively. These
types of deformation have been investigated widely on single and
polycrystals with different grain sizes and the type of crystal lattice.
Many dependences of the stress (σ) on strain (ε), σ = f(ε), in the true
coordinates have been published. A system of views of the individual
stages of deformation under tensile and compressive loading has been
formed. Although the relationships of work hardening have been
studied for a long time, these problems still remain in the centre of
attention of the world society of metal physicists. This is indicated
by the fact that in the 11th volume of Dislocation in Solids, published
in 2002 (edited by F.R.N. Nabarro M.S. Duesbery), a large part of
the reviews was concerned with work hardening. In 2003, the series
Progress in Materials Science included a review by U.F. Kocks and
H. Mecking of this problem.
In this chapter, we analyse the current views regarding the
individual stages of plastic deformation and work hardening of
the polycrystals. The stages of deformation of the polycrystalline
metallic materials were generalised for the first time in the well-
known monographs [1–4]. The eight-stage pattern of plastic flow of
the metallic polycrystals has been experimentally determined and
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