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Transcending Dystopia
 Transcending Dystopia
Music, Mobility, and the Jewish Community in Germany, 1945–
1989

TINA FRÜHAUF
 Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in
research, scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered trade mark of Oxford University Press
in the UK and certain other countries.

Published in the United States of America by Oxford University Press

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© Oxford University Press 2021

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by any means, without the prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted by law, by
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You must not circulate this work in any other form and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Frühauf, Tina, author.
Title: Transcending dystopia : music, mobility, and the Jewish community
in Germany, 1945-1989 / Tina Frühauf.
Description: New York : Oxford University Press, 2021. |
Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2020022207 (print) | LCCN 2020022208 (ebook) |
ISBN 9780197532973 (hardback) | ISBN 9780197532997 (epub) |
ISBN 9780197533000 (digital online) | 9780197532980 (updf)
Subjects: LCSH: Jews—Germany—Music—History and criticism. |
Music—Germany—20th century—History and criticism.
Classification: LCC ML3776 .F89 2020 (print) | LCC ML3776 (ebook) |
DDC 780.89/92404309045—dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020022207
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020022208
DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780197532973.001.0001
You hauled the rubble—you paved the way
To Pauline Rother Bienick (1909–2003)
For your sagacity and faith
 Contents

Acknowledgments
Prologue: Moving Toward Silence
On Transliteration and Translation, Spelling, and Names
Abbreviations

Introduction: Against All Odds—The Jewish Gemeinde as Sonic Community in an Age

of Mobility

PART I AFTER THE RUPTURE: THE INTERREGNUM AND THE CULTURE OF

REBIRTH
1 In the Midst of Rubble: Rebuilding a Musical Life in Berlin
2 Out of the Depths: The Case of Munich and the South
3 Communal Encounters: Frankfurt am Main and the North
4 Remnants in the Soviet and French Zones and Beyond
5 Remembering the Holocaust: Mourning and Celebration
6 Disseminating Survival: Jews, Music, and the Media
7 The End of Dystopia?

PART II MUSIC IN MOTION: THE JEWISH COMMUNITIES IN WEST GERMANY

8 Returning and Leaving: Frankfurt in Flux
9 Rebuilding with or without Organ
10 Cantors on the Move
11 Regenerating a Choral Music Culture
12 Music in Social Life

PART III THE PRESENCE OF ABSENCE: JEWISH (HERITAGE) MUSIC IN EAST

GERMANY
13 Dystopia under Communism: Communities in the Crossfire of Politics
14 Werner Sander and the Formation of the Leipziger Synagogalchor
15 Facing Cultural Stagnation: Musical Life after Sander
16 “Making Antifascist Politics Visible”: Jewish Heritage Music and Cold War Politics
17 The Leipziger Synagogalchor in the Service of State Propaganda
18 Jewish Culture in Public Diplomacy, Memory Politics, and the Curious Case of Halle
19 Projecting Utopia: Jewish Heritage Music Abroad
20 The Politics of Commemoration and Reorientation

PART IV MUSIC AS VORTEX IN JEWISH BERLIN

21 The Establishment of the Jüdische Gemeinde von Groß-Berlin
22 The Anniversary Year of 1971 and the Dawn of Détente
23 The Rise of the Jüdische Gemeinde zu Berlin
24 Deterioration and Recovery: The Jüdische Gemeinde Berlin, Hauptstadt der DDR
25 Toward a New Communal Future: Parallel Sound Worlds and Rapprochement

Notes
Bibliography
Index
 Acknowledgments

This book could not have been completed without the generous support of institutions and
individuals to whom I would like to express my warmest gratitude. First and foremost I wish
to thank the many informants and witnesses who enriched the content of this book and who
generously shared with me their time and insights: David Clark, Udo Deiries, Jochen
Fahlenkamp, Barbara Grimmer, Oljean Ingster, Helmut Klotz, Kurt Messerschmidt, Thomas
Pammler, Ursula Philipp-Drescher, Jalda Rebling, Reinhard Riedel, Siegmund Rotstein,
Eliyahu Schleifer, Guido Shamir, Chaim Storosum, Marcel Wainstock, Anne Weiss, and Bret
Werb, as well as Kathryn Luzader and the Kelleher family in Melrose, Massachusetts, for
sharing the estate of Adolf Schwersenz.
Research and writing have been financially supported by the AMS Janet Levy Fund for
Independent Scholars, the Memorial Foundation for Jewish Culture, and the Leo Baeck
Institute’s Gerald Westheimer Career Development Fellowship. Having such support means
the world to any independent scholar lacking a sabbatical and being ineligible for many
fellowships. Therefore, I am also most grateful to the Verein der Freunde und Förderer des
Synagogal Ensemble Berlin and the Handelsverband Berlin-Brandenburg for supporting the
very final stage of this book, its production. As the hosts and supporters of the Louis
Lewandowski Festival, an annual international festival in Berlin-Brandenburg with focus on
Jewish choral and synagogue music, they ensure the performance of musical traditions, many
of which are at the heart of this volume.
The various kinds of research could not have been completed without the many archivists
and librarians who assisted me. The materials they allowed me to access have made this a
truly original volume that brings to light new information, facts, and sources that are
significant, not only to the study of music, but also to Cold War studies, cultural history,
German studies, Holocaust studies, and Jewish studies. I would like to extend my deep
appreciation to Peter Honigmann, Eva Blattner, and Elijahu Tarantul for making my time at
the Zentralarchiv der Juden in Deutschland (Heidelberg) so very memorable. Special thanks
also go to Werner Grünzweig (Akademie der Künste, Berlin), Thomas Andrey Hirth (Archiv
der Jüdischen Gemeinde zu Dresden), Klaudia Krenn (Archiv der Israelitischen
Religionsgemeinde zu Leipzig), Zachary Loeb and Melanie Meyers (Leo Baeck Institute
Archives, New York), Aubrey Pomerance (Archiv des Jüdischen Museums Berlin), and
Hermann Simon and Barbara Welker (Archiv der Stiftung Neue Synagoge Berlin—Centrum
Judaicum).
I am indebted to the Leipziger Synagogalchor for sharing with me materials and insights,
and for hosting me in Leipzig. Very special thanks go to Franziska Menzel who went out of
her way to help me with my research and for reading parts of the book and providing
valuable feedback.
My research home base was Berlin, where I spent memorable times thanks to my dear
friends who aided me in various capacities, with great generosity, and without whom this
journey would not have been as special: Nils Busch-Petersen, Jörg Sandmann, Lisa Schoß,
Regina Yantian, and Cem Yurtsever. During the very last stage of completing this book, the
Hochschule für Musik und Theater in Munich became a second home base for additional
research and writing. My gratitude extends to my colleagues Claus Bockmaier and Markus
Bellheim for facilitating the DAAD guest professorship and for providing a supportive and
collegial framework for my stay.
My heartfelt thanks go also to my colleagues in the United States, who listened, advised,
and supported me during the various stages of research and the years of writing the book:
Zdravko Blažeković, Joy Calico, Sabine Feisst, and Mark Slobin. I wish to extend my
innermost gratitude to Pryor Dodge for his emotional, intellectual, and logistical support of
all my endeavors. His invaluable advice on the visual aspects of this volume, especially the
cover art, and help with photo editing has, for sure, enriched this book.
And lastly, I am thankful to Oxford University Press and the anonymous reviewers they
engaged to respond to the volume. Their valuable criticism has unquestionably improved the
book. The editors at Oxford University Press have shaped the volume in significant ways,
first and foremost Suzanne Ryan. I would also like to recognize Norman Hirschy and Mary
Horn for their eloquent guidance before and during production, and Tim Rutherford-Johnson
for his thorough copyediting.
The book is dedicated to my grandmother Pauline Bienick (neé Rother) for her lightness
about fate—an equanimity that borders nobility but comes with no pride.
 Prologue: Moving Toward Silence

Schweigen ist Ende, Schweigen ist Tod,

Stille aber ist sanftes Gleiten,
Stille is Atmen, ist ruhiges Schreiten
Durch alle Träume der Not.
Being silent is final, being silent is death,
But quiet is gentle gliding,
Quiet is breathing, it is calm striding
Through all the dreams of need.
Leo Menter, “Der Ton—Für Arno Nadel,” Der Weg 1, no. 18 (1946):
1

The destruction of Jewish culture in Nazi Germany was a gradual process conducted in five
successive phases that began with a series of highly publicized acts to ostracize prominent
Jewish figures and their friends through defamation, boycott, and cultural ghettoization
between 1933 and 1935; the legal dismemberment and dissimilation between 1935 and 1938,
and the elimination of the economic basis of existence through “bureaucratic exclusion” of
all Jews; the total disenfranchisement between 1939 and 1941; and the Final Solution, the
Nazis’ plan to annihilate and exterminate the Jewish people, between 1941 and 1945.
Before this destructive process began, music in Jewish life had just reached another
juncture. In the autumn of 1931 Munich-based composer and organist Heinrich Schalit had
conceived his Freitagabend-Liturgie, op. 29, for cantor, chorus, and organ. The work was the
result of criticism of the state of synagogue music, specifically the repertoire of Louis
Lewandowski, which many deemed outdated at the time. A number of Jews active in music
as theorists, composers, performers, or critics—Schalit being one of them—had been
pursuing a repertoire representative of the Weimar Republic’s Jewish community: modern
and Jewish, cosmopolitan and worldly, reflective of the relative pluralism that defined the
Jewish community of that period, when Eastern sounds were embraced as authentically
Jewish. Music now conveyed a new sense of Jewish identity in response to a cultural process
which the philosopher Martin Buber in 1903 had termed a Jewish renaissance—perhaps an
equivalent to Jewish modernism, a cultural utopia in Jewish style.
On September 16, 1932, the Vereinigte Synagogenchöre of Berlin (a choral association of
some one hundred singers enlisted from all of Berlin’s synagogue choirs to perform large-
scale works in concert) premiered Schalit’s Freitagabend-Liturgie at Lützowstraße
Synagogue in Berlin, under the baton of the Jewish community’s music director Alexander
Weinbaum (1875–1943), who had inspired the conception of the work. Max Janowski played
the organ and Chief Cantor Hanns John Jacobsohn sang the solo parts. The premiere of the
Freitagabend-Liturgie, attended also by a good number of non-Jews, could not have been a
greater success, as we learn from composer and synagogue musician Oskar Guttmann:
 For the first time in decades, a music has been heard in the organ synagogue whose disposition and instinct can be
characterized as liturgically Jewish. It was created not merely by a musician, but by a Jewish master—a Jewish human
being, who tries to allow the inherent melos of the Hebrew language, its rhythm and meter, its accentuation, to resonate.
Thus, for the first time, a fully correct intonation of the Hebrew text exists. The Hebrew meter, too, the symmetry and
asymmetry of diction, is taken into consideration, so that the musical form does not senselessly destroy the word but
rather grows out of it. Schalit borders on modernism. Through the use of church modes [sic; he refers to shtayger] and
their conforming harmonization, a unique and solemn atmosphere emerges . . . The house of worship was surprisingly
full, as it is during the High Holidays, which is proof of a broad interest in the renewal of synagogue music.1

Musicologists Alfred Einstein, Hugo Leichtentritt, and Curt Sachs, as well as music director
Hermann Schildberger, praised the Freitagabend-Liturgie for its use of contemporary modal
techniques as well as Eastern melodies previously discovered by Abraham Z. Idelsohn
(1882–1938).
Only a few months after this milestone performance, the new directions in Jewish music,
reflective of the community during the Weimar Republic, took a sharp turn. Soon after the
takeover, the Nazis began to orchestrate a campaign against Jewish musicians, with
organized mobs disrupting public concerts by musicians deemed to be potentially hostile to
the new government. The first official step in the destruction of Jewish musical life and
elimination of Jewish musicians from public culture was taken on April 7, 1933, when the
Nazis promulgated the so-called Law for the Restoration of the Civil Service, which called
for the dismissal of Jewish employees in the public realm, exempting at first only a very few,
such as veterans of the First World War (by the fall of 1935 even these exemptions were
canceled by and large). The law applied to Jews who worked in cultural institutions and in
the arts, and extended to state-employed musicians of Jewish origin who by the spring of
1933 were beginning to lose their tenured positions. On August 16, 1933, Jews were
excluded from choral groups. Many private and semi-public institutions took advantage of
the new regulations to rid themselves of unwanted Jewish members. Abruptly, thousands of
artists of Jewish origin were unemployed and an exodus of scholars, actors, writers, and
musicians began. Those who did not emigrate attempted to reorganize.
Upon losing his position as professor at the Staatliche Akademische Hochschule für Musik
and as artistic director of the Städtische Oper in Berlin-Charlottenburg, the neurologist,
musicologist, and conductor Kurt Singer (1885–1944), together with two colleagues, initiated
a unique program to provide help and give his unemployed colleagues new opportunities. In
May 1933 they presented the proposal for a Kulturbund deutscher Juden (Culture League of
German Jews) in Berlin to the Nazi authorities, proposing a theater, an orchestra, an opera
company, and cultural activities for the benefit of unemployed artists of Jewish origin. This
concept was accepted just two months later on the condition that the word “German” be
omitted from the league’s name, that the organizers and the audience be exclusively Jewish,
and the events be closed to the general public. The Nazis approved this endeavor as it suited
their own plan for cultural ghettoization as well as propaganda abroad to present the Jews as
a sheltered minority.2 Supervised by Goebbels’ special commissioner for cultural affairs,
Hans Hinkel, the first of the so-called “closed performances” took place in Berlin in the fall
of the same year.
During its first six months, the league organized 313 events in Berlin alone and many more
in the surrounding region. This success motivated the founding of similar organizations in
other parts of the German Reich.3 Leagues formed in the areas of Rhine-Ruhr and Rhine-
Main, with the formation of a second and third active league in Cologne and Frankfurt am
Main, respectively. Smaller offshoots formed in Breslau, Chemnitz, Dresden, Düsseldorf,
Eschwege, Hamburg, Kassel, Munich, Mannheim, Stuttgart, and elsewhere. By 1935 the
league had forty-six local chapters in other cities and towns, grouped under the umbrella
organization, Reichsverband der jüdischen Kulturbünde (Reich Association of Jewish
Culture Leagues), also based in Berlin. As such, the Jewish Culture League was a double-
edged sword, a Nazi controlled cultural ghetto, but also a temporary safe haven for those
involved in the arts.4 The league events guaranteed about 2,000 Jewish musicians and
cultural figures a forum of their own, though a segregated one. This separation would
redefine the experience of music within the Jewish community—it would now expand, both
in scope and in repertoire.
Initially the league carried on existing concert practices and relied on canonical works of
classical music. Even though the performers and audiences were suddenly isolated, they
continued with repertoires they had known for decades and thus remained in contact with the
musical culture they had come to appreciate and participate in. As the repertoire could be
chosen freely, the league did not introduce a specifically “Jewish” program. However, this
would change when the censors banned musicians from performing the works of “German”
composers. (Handel’s music was permitted as one of several exceptions, probably because of
his affinity to England and preference for biblical subjects of the Old Testament.5) Although
the works of non-Jewish composers from outside the German-speaking world could still be
performed, the role of works by Jewish musicians began to play a much greater role, if in the
end only for the survival of the organization.
At first, the question of “Jewishness” in art led to a crisis within the league that threatened
its very existence, which the leadership tried to avert by holding the 1936 conference on the
subject of Jewish music.6 But the censorship and ensuing repertoire debates also had
unanticipated positive consequences, leading to a substantial broadening of works performed
to include folk music, synagogue music, and works of contemporary Jewish composers. The
latter was encouraged through a competition for the advancement of contemporary Jewish
music, open to all composers of Jewish heritage living on German soil and abroad.7 By
supporting Zionist and national-Jewish activities, the league inadvertently catered to the
Nazis’ Judenpolitik, which amounted to the suppression of all assimilatory endeavors.8 The
isolation of Jews within German society inevitably led to an increased consciousness of
Jewish identity and awoke the desire for “Jewish experiences” in the league’s concert halls.
Although the league was closely tied to the community, its venues were not. Performances
took place at authorized segregated spaces. In Kassel, one such place was the Murhardsaal;
only on some occasions performance took place in the Königsstraße Synagogue. The
Hamburg branch initially offered performances in the Conventgarten, Kaiser-Wilhelm-
Straße, sometimes also in the Curiohaus and the Tempel at Oberstraße. In January 1938 it
moved to the Jewish community center in Hartungstraße, a building that after 1945 housed
the Hamburger Kammerspiele.
In Berlin concerts took place at Bechstein Hall and the liberal Lützowstraße Synagogue in
the Tiergarten district. Although the synagogue was damaged during Kristallnacht, so-called
Morgenfeiern (devotional and paraliturgical events with music that included a combination of
hymns and other religious music with Bible readings and spoken reflections on religious
subjects) continued there at least until 1941, possibly also because the grand organ was still
fully operable.9 Berlin’s municipal administration also leased the Berliner Theater on
Charlottenstraße to the league’s management. When in 1935, after two years, the league was
not allowed to renew the lease and lost the theater, operations transferred to the Herrnfeld
Theater on Kommandantenstraße. This performance hall had been carefully guarded during
Kristallnacht, so that it could continue to be exploited for propaganda purposes. Thus the
November pogroms did not quite affect the league operations (save that many musicians
realized that they needed to leave the country). In fact, the Nazis ordered the league to
resume their activities within three days after Kristallnacht, a testimony to the crucial stance
of the league in Nazi policy—in return league officials exerted their own pressure on the
Nazi regime, demanding the release of those who had been arrested.10
But while functioning to some extent, the league’s situation became more difficult and its
activities were severely curtailed. Many local league chapters disbanded shortly after the
1938 pogroms, such as those in Munich and in Frankfurt am Main. The Nazis dissolved the
Reich Association of Jewish Culture Leagues in 1939, resulting in the closure of most of the
local league chapters. Its successor organization, the Jüdischer Kulturbund in Deutschland,
organized all cultural events independently and with its own responsibility. The Berlin league
was one of the few Goebbels permitted for propaganda purposes; concerts in other towns
became rare. On September 11, 1941, the Gestapo dissolved the league, citing the first
paragraph of the Reich Chancellor’s order of February 28, 1933, as a pretext—for “the
protection of people and state.” Though, as Rebecca Rovit asserts with view on the league’s
theater company, the league “did not—indeed could not—simply end with a Nazi
government order.”11 Some musical activities might have continued underground.12
Clearly, 1941 was the year in which the Nazis perceived the war as having transformed
into a global conflict and hence the year in which they moved to intensify their anti-Semitic
program into an accelerated and intensified campaign of complete annihilation. If the policies
of 1933 and 1941 led to sharp turns in the Jewish communities’ musical lives, another rupture
occurred during the night of November 9‒10, 1938, when synagogues as venues of
communal gathering and music making, liturgical and otherwise, were largely destroyed,
with only a few exceptions. By destroying almost every major synagogue on German soil,
and with it its three-fold purpose as bet ha-kneset​ (house of congregation), bet ha-midrash
(house of education), and bet ha-tefilah (house of worship), the Nazis effectually dislocated
the Jewish community. Aside from religious and cultural activities, the social services of the
synagogue were limited if not destroyed, leaving community members unable to interact.
A number of synagogues survived Kristallnacht, among them the synagogue in Augsburg,
as it neighbored a compound of kerosene tanks; the synagogue in Lübeck, because it
practically abutted the city’s Museum für Kunst- und Kulturgeschichte; synagogues in Berlin
(Heidereutergasse, Levetzowstraße, Münchner Straße, Reformgemeinde Johannisstraße,
Oranienburger Straße, and the Orthodox Synagogue Kottbusser Ufer, today Fraenkelufer),
Munich (Reichenbachstraße Synagogue), and Frankfurt (Westend Synagogue); and a good
number of smaller synagogues such as those in Amberg, Straubing, and Weiden.13 But only a
few could be used for worship into the 1940s and congregants gathered in private milieus.14
According to personal memoirs and other documentation, services slowly began to
dwindle.15
The Oranienburger Straße Synagogue was one of the few to continue operations after
1938. Miraculously saved by a police officer during Kristallnacht, services with music
resumed there after a few months, as a letter from Sigmund Hirschberg, dated April 1939,
attests:
But now I want to tell you that yesterday on the evening of the first day of Passover service was held for the first time
in the New Synagogue. The three of us anticipated the crowds and arrived an hour earlier, though doors were opened
only ½ an hour before. The large and solemn space was unchanged and the wedding hall did not show anything strange,
only on closer inspection could you see the retouching. In a very short time the space so familiar to everyone was filled
with an unusually large number of devotees. You could see all of the deep emotion that moved them, and how fond they
have grown of this place they have known since childhood. And now about something that will especially move and
delight you: the magnificent organ in full work roared with mighty chords above the deeply shaken crowd, with a well-
played classical prelude. In grand style. Mr. Gollanin served together with Rabbi Dr. Wiener who gave a speech, short,
meaningful, and relevant to the present . . .16

Lützowstraße Synagogue in Berlin, although damaged and closed, was used by the
congregation one last time on Passover of 1942. The last public synagogue service in Berlin
was held in November 1942 at the Heidereutergasse Synagogue.
In Frankfurt am Main the Jewish community held their services after Kristallnacht at the
Philantropin, one of the oldest secular and very prestigious Jewish schools, founded in 1804.
On June 27, 1941, the last Religiös-musikalische Weihestunde, an afternoon devotion took
place that featured a broad range of Jewish music. The program included vocal and
instrumental works from the nineteenth and twentieth centuries by both Jewish and other
composers, among them Antonín Dvořák, Herbert Fromm, Louis Lewandowski, Arnold
Mendelssohn and Felix Mendelssohn-Bartholdy, and Samuel Naumbourg. Chief Cantor
Nathan Saretzki conceived and directed the performance.17 He, as well as the principal
performers, singers Nelly Fuchs and Paula Levi, pianist Claire Wohlfahrt, and organist
Siegfried Würzburger, would not survive the shoah.
On December 18, 1942, the Nazis forbade public announcements of services. It became
risky to attend worship in the remaining synagogues and prayer halls as the Gestapo often
took advantage of such gatherings, abusing and arresting congregants.18 Due to their forced
closure, by mid-1943 Jewish communities no longer existed in Germany, but Jewish
communal life never fully dissolved as some rabbis continued covertly to perform clerical
tasks such as funerals and weddings.19 Eva Frank-Kunstmann remembers these times in
Berlin: “It was freezing in the room . . . Then we got a coat, sat down, and sang songs, and
we said afterward that it would be nice to celebrate Chanukah the next time, when it was all
over . . . And we could then later celebrate freely again in our country.”20 Indeed, Jewish
communal activity moved slowly underground.21 And with it, music making became an
expression of resistance.
Between January and June 1943, Zionist Hachshara farms also served as a space where
Jews met and engaged in communal activity. On April 7, 1943, the authorities ordered the
inhabitants of the last remaining community in Neuendorf to prepare for deportation. They
gathered that evening for their final Fahnenappell, a roll call flag-raising ceremony. The next
day, the group was taken from the Neuendorf agricultural center to the assembly camp at
Groβe Hamburger Straße 26 in Berlin. There they held the last joint Sabbath celebration for
all of the detainees. The following Monday, on April 19, 1943—incidentally the onset of the
Warsaw Ghetto Uprising—they were deported to Auschwitz.22 In her memoirs, Anneliese-
Ora Borinski, one of the leaders of the farm, recounts the last days before their deportation:
It appears as a kind of tragic irony. Once we formed an official singing group, we sang our songs, and the Gestapo
listened. And if they could understand, they may have laughed at these fools who in this situation were singing, “We
are building a new, strong race! We demand Jewish honor! We stand up for freedom, equality, and justice!”23

On June 10, 1943, the Gestapo disbanded the Reichsvereinigung der Juden in Deutschland
(Reich Association of Jews in Germany) and all Jewish organizations. The remaining Jews
were placed under police law and deported in the following days. Shortly thereafter further
deportations took place, with the last one being on February 14, 1945. In these final moments
music evaporated, vanishing upward, reluctantly turning into silence. But not for long.
 On Transliteration and Translation, Spelling, and Names

Many of the foreign terms used in this book do not exist in the English language and are left
in their original language. To make this book accessible to a broad readership, these are
glossed en route and in the Abbreviations section. The different Ashkenazic pronunciations
—often rendered in various spellings such as “Ma tauwu,” “Ma Towu,” “Ma tauwo,” “Mah
tauwu” —and other divergent spellings were kept intact in quoted sources. Otherwise, as
with all Hebrew transliteration in this book, they are reconciled following the standards of
the American Library Association, Library of Congress. Yiddish is transliterated according to
the Standard Yiddish Orthography established by the YIVO Institute for Jewish Research in
New York. Following the YIVO guidelines, the Romanization of titles uses initial capitals
only for the first word. Personal names and the names of organizations and places are
capitalized. Exceptions to all these rules pertain to words and concepts that have become an
integral part of the English language and are now in common usage (such as Hanukkah),
quotations from other works, and sources that already exist in transliteration (such as the
Israeli newspaper Jedioth Hadashoth). The Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary,
eleventh edition, serves as the authority for assimilated terms. Different spellings of the same
personal name, such as Leibovits, Leibovitz, Leibowicz, and Leibovic, were reconciled in the
narrative, but are preserved in the index. The Encyclopaedia Judaica, second edition (2007),
is the last word on all other Hebrew names and common terms. Geographic terms appear in
the form current during the period discussed. Where those differ from the terms used today,
current usage is provided as well. Translations and transcriptions, unless marked otherwise,
are by the author.
 Abbreviations

AdIRGL Archiv der Israelitischen Religionsgemeinde zu Leipzig (Archive of the Jewish Community of Leipzig);
in 2017 parts of this archive moved to the Zentralarchiv zur Erforschung der Geschichte der Juden in
Deutschland in Heidelberg
AdJGD Archiv der Jüdischen Gemeinde zu Dresden (Archive of the Jewish Community of Dresden)
AdJMB Archiv des Jüdischen Museums Berlin (Archive of the Jewish Museum Berlin)
AdK Akademie der Künste (Academy of the Arts), Berlin; the abbreviation is used only in reference to the
institution after reunification
ADN Allgemeiner Deutscher Nachrichtendienst (General German News Service)
AJW Allgemeine Wochenzeitung der Juden in Deutschland (1949–66), Allgemeine unabhängige jüdische
Wochenzeitung (1966–73), and Allgemeine jüdische Wochenzeitung (1973–2001). The weekly Der Weg
and the monthly Allgemeine Jüdische Illustrierte were appended to the AJW from 1951 on.
ARD Arbeitsgemeinschaft der öffentlich-rechtlichen Rundfunkanstalten der Bundesrepublik Deutschland
(Consortium of Public Broadcasters in the Federal Republic of Germany)
BArch Bundesarchiv (Federal Archives), Berlin
BStU Behörde für die Unterlagen des Staatssicherheitsdienstes der ehemaligen Deutschen Demokratischen
Republik (Federal Commissioner for Stasi Files)
CDU Christlich-Demokratische Union (Christian Democratic Union)
CJA Archiv der Stiftung Neue Synagoge Berlin – Centrum Judaicum (Centrum Judaicum Archive), Berlin
CSSR Czech and Slovak Socialist Republic
DEFA Deutsche Film-Aktiengesellschaft (German Film Corporation)
DP displaced person
DRA Deutsches Rundfunkarchiv (German Broadcasting Archive)
FJG Frankfurter Jüdisches Gemeindeblatt: Mitteilungsorgan des Landesverbandes der Jüdischen Gemeinden
in Hessen
FRG Bundesrepublik Deutschland (Federal Republic of Germany)
GDR Deutsche Demokratische Republik (German Democratic Republic)
IRGL Israelitische Religionsgemeine zu Leipzig (Israelite Religious Community of Leipzig)
JGD Jüdische Gemeinde zu Dresden (Jewish Community of Dresden)
JGG Jüdische Gemeinde von Groß-Berlin (Jewish Community of Greater Berlin), from June 1977 on Jüdische
Gemeinde Berlin (Jewish Community of Berlin)
JGH Jüdische Gemeinde in Hamburg (Jewish Community of Hamburg)
Joint* American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee and Refugee Aid
LATh—HStA Landesarchiv Thüringen—Hauptstaatsarchiv Weimar (State Archive Thuringia – Main State Archives
Weimar Weimar)
LexM Lexikon verfolgter Musiker und Musikerinnen der NS-Zeit
MDR Mitteldeutscher Rundfunk (Central German Broadcasting)
Nachrichtenblatt This newsletter appeared quarterly until September 1990 under varying titles, as Mitteilungsblatt der
Jüdischen Gemeinde von Groß-Berlin (1953–60), Nachrichtenblatt der Jüdischen Gemeinde von Groß-
Berlin und des Verbandes der Jüdischen Gemeinden in der Deutschen Demokratischen Republik (1961–
March 1977), Nachrichtenblatt der Jüdischen Gemeinde von Berlin und des Verbandes der Jüdischen
Gemeinden in der Deutschen Demokratischen Republik (June 1977–82), and Nachrichtenblatt des
Verbandes der Jüdischen Gemeinden in der DDR (1982–90). The earliest issues of 1953 and 1954 do not
contain any music-related information.
NDR Norddeutscher Rundfunk (Northern German Broadcasting)
NWDR Nordwestdeutscher Rundfunk (Northwest German Broadcasting)
RIAS Rundfunk im amerikanischen Sektor (Radio in the American Sector)
SAPMO-BArch Stiftung Archiv der Parteien und Massenorganisationen der DDR im Bundesarchiv (Foundation Archives
of Parties and Mass Organizations of the GDR in the Federal Archives)
SED Sozialistische Einheitspartei Deutschlands (Socialist Unity Party of Germany)
SFB Sender Freies Berlin (Radio Free Berlin)
SPD Sozialdemokratische Partei Deutschlands (Social Democratic Party of Germany)
StAH Staatsarchiv der Freien und Hansestadt Hamburg (State Archive of the Free and Hanse City Hamburg
Stasi Ministerium für Staatssicherheit (Ministry for State Security)
StVuR Stadtverordnetenversammlung und Rat der Stadt Leipzig, 1945–1990 (City Assembly and Council of the
City of Leipzig)
UNRRA United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration
USHMM United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, Washington, DC
USPD Unabhängige Sozialdemokratische Partei Deutschlands (Independent Social Democratic Party of
Germany)
USSR Union of Soviet Socialist Republics
Verband Verband der jüdischen Gemeinden in der DDR (Association of Jewish Communities in the GDR)
VVN Vereinigung der Verfolgten des Naziregimes (Association of Victims of the Nazi Regime)
WDR Westdeutscher Rundfunk (West German Broadcasting)
WIZO Women’s International Zionist Organization
ZA Zentralarchiv zur Erforschung der Geschichte der Juden in Deutschland (Central Archives for Research
on the History of the Jews in Germany), Heidelberg

* The official abbreviation is JDC, but to ensure a more fluid narrative, this book prefers the short form Joint.
 Introduction Against All Odds
The Jewish Gemeinde as Sonic Community in an Age of Mobility

In an interview upon his arrival in New York on December 17, 1945, Leo Baeck (1873–
1956) assertively proclaimed: “The history of German Jews has ended once and for all.”1 A
spiritual leader who embodied German Jewish culture at its core, Baeck was not the only one
to announce the end of an era, which musically implied the definitive end of
Orgelsynagogen, the disuse of repertoires created by Louis Lewandowski, Emanuel
Kirschner, Heinrich Schalit, and many others, and no second renaissance of Jewish culture.
However, his prophecy did not quite prove to be true, although transformations were
certainly to be expected after dystopia: the population of native Jews had shrunk from over
one-half million to a fraction; and with Germany in shambles there seemed little if nothing to
return to for those 270,000 who had exiled. Music as an integral part of Jewish culture
seemed even more unthinkable in the aftermath of the Holocaust.
But with the end of the Second World War, the Jewish communities in occupied Germany
witnessed a miraculous, if limited, reemergence of culture and musical activity, driven by a
Jewish population that had returned from underground hiding (the illegals), survived while
protected through what the Nazis had termed “privileged” mixed marriage,2 re-emigrated
(the returnees), or survived the camps and settled temporarily. It certainly seems an irony of
history, even a paradox, that German soil provided a haven for Jewish refugees in the first
years after the war. Some of those who returned immediately came with the idealism to help
build a new and democratic Germany. Many settled in the eastern part, attracted by the
emerging antifascist agenda, which the Democratic Bloc promoted early on.
Given the extreme population flux during the first postwar years, the number of Jews on
German soil and the accuracy of statistics are difficult to estimate. This is primarily due to
registration issues. The very designation of “Jew” had become a contested one that circled
within a complicated framework of facts, politics, and polemics. Who identified and self-
identified as Jewish differed greatly at the time, depending on position and perspective. A
number of non-Jews declared themselves Jewish in order to evade prosecution as Nazi
criminals, and, traumatized by the years 1933–45, many Jews did not want to identify
themselves at all.3 To provide a rough estimate for the immediate postwar period, the ca.
18,000 to 20,000 nascent Jews who survived through marriage or in hiding (about 7,000 of
them in Berlin) were joined by about 55,000 survivors4 liberated in Germany and around
9,000 native Jews who survived in camps and ghettos abroad, totaling 83,000—indeed, a
fraction compared to the pre-1933 population.5
During the first years, native Jews lived side by side with the constantly fluctuating
number of incoming Holocaust survivors from the East.6 They came as Jewish displaced
persons (henceforth DPs) after having been released from concentration camps. Some had
been partisans, others were persecutees from Poland and Russia who could not and did not
want to be repatriated out of fear of further persecution.7 For them the DP camps on German
soil and elsewhere provided temporary shelter. The numbers of these refugees at some point
reached the 300,000 level.8 Being in Germany by external circumstance, about 10 percent of
the DPs decided to stay and eventually joined the over one hundred Jewish communities that
had been reestablished. This melding apexed when the camps were dissolved beginning in
the summer of 1948, after the foundation of Israel and the passage of the DP Act. Föhrenwald
in Bavaria was the last camp to close in 1957.
If before the Nazi era Jews in Germany constituted only 1 percent of the population, after
1945 they were an even smaller fraction. But to consider them to be a postwar minority
seems an inappropriately Eurocentric way of dealing with difference. In reality, Jews
maintained a significant presence on German soil, though community demographics vastly
differed and unity was not necessarily a given. Prior to 1933 the nascent Jews had formed the
majority, while the ca. 70,000 eastern European Jews, who had arrived around the turn of the
century to escape pogroms and famines, played a marginal role. Even those arriving as part
of a second wave of eastern European immigration after the First World War often lived and
worshipped segregated from the native Jews in order to avoid looming tensions. After 1945
new tensions were on the rise, but circumstances differed. The DPs who decided to stay and
join the reestablished local communities often outnumbered the nascent Jews. When they
were in the majority, they initiated changes in religious service including its decorum,
aesthetics, and music. Often divisions over cultural, religious, and even political issues
ensued.
After twists and turns in the first years after the war, with the formation of the two German
states in 1949, internal demographics began to settle and shift. As the Soviet Zone barely had
any DP camps (the Russians refused to acknowledge the DP problem) and did not experience
a large influx of Eastern European Jews, communities there remained almost uniformly
controlled by native Jews. In contrast, in West Germany the cultural fabric differed in each
individual community; overall and over time the communities became increasingly diverse,
such that by 1989 they consisted of a unique blend of Ashkenazic and Sephardic, Eastern and
Western Jews. This heterogeneity affected identity politics, which showed various forms of
self-identification—a stark contrast to prewar times.9 Some self-identified as Juden in
Deutschland (Jews in Germany) or deutsche Staatsbürger (German citizens), others opted for
German Jews, German citizens of Jewish faith, and Jewish Germans—a nomenclature that
underlined the fragmented and fluid nature of their identities. The heterogeneity was not only
due to country of origin, but also driven by generational differences that would crystalize in
the 1960s and 1970s. Older Jews had returned with a longing to re-embrace their prewar
existence, while a new generation grew up in the ruins of a post-Holocaust reality, seeking a
future while feeling ambivalent about Germany. Jewish identities shifted in complex ways.
Indeed, their diversity and fragmentation in the postwar Germanys extends far beyond the
previous scatteredness in the Diasporas. Jonathan Boyarin terms this heterogeneous and
unstable Jewish state of existence after 1945 as post-Judaism.10
How then can we understand Jewishness and Germanness, when the terms are no longer
embedded in fixed identities and national borders?11 In 1994 anthropologist Richard Handler
Another Random Scribd Document
with Unrelated Content
 Law - Term Paper
Fall 2022 - Academy

Prepared by: Researcher Williams

Date: August 12, 2025

Methodology 1: Experimental procedures and results

Learning Objective 1: Historical development and evolution
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Learning Objective 2: Current trends and future directions
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Learning Objective 3: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Learning Objective 4: Study tips and learning strategies
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Learning Objective 5: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Ethical considerations and implications
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Case studies and real-world applications
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Remember: Case studies and real-world applications
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice Problem 8: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 9: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Discussion 2: Case studies and real-world applications
Important: Key terms and definitions
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 12: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 13: Research findings and conclusions
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 14: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice Problem 14: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Literature review and discussion
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 17: Case studies and real-world applications
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 18: Practical applications and examples
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 19: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Literature review and discussion
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Results 3: Interdisciplinary approaches
Definition: Case studies and real-world applications
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 21: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Important: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 23: Key terms and definitions
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Example 25: Practical applications and examples
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Study tips and learning strategies
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 27: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Case studies and real-world applications
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Example 29: Practical applications and examples
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Topic 4: Study tips and learning strategies
Key Concept: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 31: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice Problem 31: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice Problem 34: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 35: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Definition: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 36: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Key terms and definitions
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Key Concept: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Practical applications and examples
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 39: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Best practices and recommendations
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Abstract 5: Comparative analysis and synthesis
Example 40: Practical applications and examples
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 41: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice Problem 41: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 43: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Practice Problem 44: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Literature review and discussion
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice Problem 47: Practical applications and examples
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Study tips and learning strategies
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
References 6: Critical analysis and evaluation
Example 50: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Research findings and conclusions
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 52: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Case studies and real-world applications
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Research findings and conclusions
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 55: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 56: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Important: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 57: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
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