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Populism and Civil Society
 Populism and Civil
Society
The Challenge to Constitutional Democracy

A N D R EW A R AT O A N D J E A N L . C O H E N

1
 3
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© Oxford University Press 2022

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Arato, Andrew, author. | Cohen, Jean L., author.
Title: Populism and civil society : the challenge to constitutional democracy /
by Andrew Arato and Jean L. Cohen.
Description: New York : Oxford University Press, 2022. |
Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2021031185 (print) | LCCN 2021031186 (ebook) |
ISBN 9780197526590 (paperback) | ISBN 9780197526583 (hardback) |
ISBN 9780197526606 (updf) | ISBN 9780197526613 (epub) | ISBN 9780197526620 (oso)
Subjects: LCSH: Populism. | Civil society. | Political culture.
Classification: LCC JC 423.A6845 2021 (print) | LCC JC423 (ebook) |
DDC 320.56/62—dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021031185
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021031186

DOI: 10.1093/​oso/​9780197526583.001.0001

1 3 5 7 9 8 6 4 2
Paperback printed by LSC Communications, United States of America
Hardback printed by Bridgeport National Bindery, Inc., United States of America
 Contents

Preface and Acknowledgments  vii

Introduction: Defining Populism  1
What Is Populism? How to Define the Phenomenon  2
What Is Populism: Immanent Critique  4
What Is Populism: Construction of the Ideal Type  7
Different Populisms: Mobilization, Party, Government, and Regime  14
The Plan of the Book  17
1. Populism: Why and Why Now?  25
The Long Term: The Fundamental Contradiction of
Modern Democracy  29
The Middle Term: Deficits of Representation  32
The Short Term: Bait and Switch, Populist Supply, and Media Strategies  39
The Turn to Mobilization  46
Populism and the Media  48
2. Populism as Mobilization and as a Party  53
Social Movements: Their Logic and Limits  56
Political Parties and Their Transformation  62
Populist Mobilization, Its Dynamics and Tensions: The Cases  68
Mobilization by or with Parties  70
Mobilization by a Government or a Chief Executive  73
Mobilization from below in Civil Society  74
Movement Parties and the Movementization of Parties  85
Populist Logic: Implications for Populist Parties and Democratic
Party Systems  89
The Pars Pro Toto Logic and the Relapse into Factionalism  90
The Friend–​Enemy Political Logic and Affective Polarization  93
The Anti-​Establishment Stance and the Permanent
Movementization of Anti-​Party Parties  100
Conclusion  102
3. Populist Governments and Their Logic  107
Democracy Revisited  110
Populism in Government: Democracy Enhancing or Eviscerating?  122
Populist Government I: Qualified Authoritarianism?  130
The Threshold Issue  134
Populist Government II: Illiberal Democracy?  138
  The Concept of Illiberal Democracy  139
  The Populist Hybrid Regime  145
vi Contents

4. Populism and Constitutionalism  153

Introduction  153
Contesting the Balance between Popular Sovereignty
and Constitutionalism  156
Version 1. Popular Constitutionalism and Populism in Opposition  156
Version 2: Movements and Governments in Populist
Constitutional Replacement  160
Version 3: Constitution Replacement Dominated by Executives:
Peru and Hungary  165
Version 4: Constitutional Politics via Amendment and
Court Packing: Turkey and Poland  169
The Version after: Populist Treatment of New Constitutions  173
Is There a Populist Constitutionalism?  175
Inherited Constitutionalism  178
A New Balance?  178
Constitutional Instrumentalism?  179
Abusive Constitutionalism  179
Political Constitutionalism as Norm?  181
Constitutionalism of the Constituent Power  183
5. Alternatives to Populism  185
Popular, Plural, and Constitutionalist Democracy vs.
Populist Democratic Monism  186
The Popular vs. the Populist  186
Popular Sovereignty  187
From “Thin Ideology” to the Norms of Democracy  190
Toward a New Political Narrative  191
The Constituent Power, Democratic Constitutionalism,
and Consensus Democracy  195
Rescuing (Some of) the Host Ideologies  201
The Welfare Deficit and the Renewal of Social Democracy  202
The Cultural Gap: Status Deficits and the Renewal of Social Solidarity  209
Civil Society and a Dualistic Strategy  214

Notes  221
Bibliography  277
Index  295
 Preface and Acknowledgments

This book was written in 2020—​one of the worst years in our history. A global
health crisis comparable only to the deadly flu pandemic a century ago, a se-
vere economic downturn seriously exacerbating extreme inequality the likes
of which has also not been seen in Western industrialized countries since the
American “gilded age,” and the rise of authoritarian (most of them) populists to
power globally, including in some supposedly consolidated democracies, were
bad enough. Making everything worse was the brazen attempt of a sitting US
president to deny the results of a free and fair election which he lost, through the
technique of the “big lie,” declaring that the election was riddled with fraud, that
he won by a “landslide” (he lost by 7 million votes and a large electoral college
defeat), and then exerting pressure on impartial officials in the states to “find him
votes” and on courts to find in his favor—​i.e., to enable the commission of actual
(and not just falsely claimed) fraud. The culmination came very early in 2021 (on
January 6), when the defeated, lame duck, president fomented an insurrection
to block the peaceful transfer of power, by inviting an armed mob to attack the
Capitol building. That mob penetrated into the halls of Congress and threatened
the lives of congressional representatives, senators, and the vice president. Five
people died in the melee. They interrupted the certification of the election of in-
coming President Biden, a constitutionally mandated but normally pedestrian
process. Happily they failed. The Capitol was cleared of the insurrectionists, and
Biden was indeed certified as the next president of the United States that very
night. But the damage to our democracy was done. Many used to think that such
things as self-​coups or “autogolpes” and armed challenges to elections happen
somewhere else, not in long-​consolidated democracies, and certainly not in the
United States—​the imagined beacon of the peaceful transition of power and
governments. We had better think again and very hard.
That is what this book seeks to do. We take the contemporary challenge of
populism to democracy very seriously, even though we situate this challenge
within instead of outside the democratic imaginary. We realize that what is
needed is analytical clarity, cogent theoretical analysis, political prudence, and
good judgment, but also deep commitment to fighting the populist challenge—​a
fight that can only be won by expanding, not simply restoring, democracy and
justice in our societies. We now know that “it”—​undermining of democracy and
social justice—​can indeed happen here, and everywhere. The goal of this book is
to make a small contribution to help ensure that this challenge does not succeed.
viii Preface and Acknowledgments

To be sure, the preparatory work and earlier versions of some of the chapters
were done well before 2020. Indeed in that respect the book was long in the
making. But because we were both on leave during much of 2020 we were able to
complete the manuscript during this fateful year in somewhat peaceful (and yes
privileged) isolation from the tumult around us. Nevertheless we of course felt,
and still do, deep tension and anxiety for the future caused not only by the pan-
demic but also by the disastrous political developments that have undermined
democracy, East and West, North and South. The contrast with the period in
which we wrote and published our first joint book project, Civil Society and
Political Theory, couldn’t be greater.1 Having participated in the “new social
movements” of the 1960s and 1970s and in the challenge to “really existing” com-
munist dictatorships in Soviet-​type societies in Eastern Europe, it seemed then
that the democratization of democracy (in the United States and the West gener-
ally) and the transition to democracy in the Eastern authoritarian regimes was on
the agenda, thanks to civil society led movements and processes in both arenas.
Thus, we made an attempt to analyze and foster this project, looking to both the
East and the West, in our book. Despite the crisis of welfare states in the 1980s,
the embrace of neo-​liberalism by right-​wing and even some left-​wing parties,
the increased difficulty of maintaining or expanding social democracy in a con-
text of hyper-​globalization, the achievements regarding democratization and
social justice that challenged inequality and destabilized illegitimate social hier-
archies were real. Hence, our optimism and hope, not without reason or founda-
tion. Indeed, there were many successes: the end of the imperialist venture of the
Vietnam war, civil rights improvements, greater equality for women, and even
the rise of green parties in the West; and the fall of Soviet type communism, the
dismantling of the Soviet empire (aka the Soviet Union) in the East, culminating
in autonomy and what looked like transitions to democracy in many of the coun-
tries in Central Eastern Europe. We did not believe in any “end of history” but we
could assume real progress all the same.
Today, the context couldn’t be more different. We write during the culmina-
tion and the aftermath of four years of a right-​wing populist US presidency that
engaged in constant norm breaking regarding democratic procedure and lib-
eral constitutionalism. Propaganda techniques were repeatedly used that openly
rejected truth, engaged in falsehood, and fostered white nationalism and militia
style resistance to the opposition deemed “the enemy” culminating in the insur-
rection against Congress. We are left with images of a Capitol first desecrated
by white supremacist mobs and then surrounded by armed troops that locked
down our capital city in order to ensure a safe inauguration of President Biden.
The fact that so many believed the lies and still seem to support their perpetrator,
indeed his capture of the Republican party (even if the outcome is still unclear),
is deeply disturbing and must be analyzed. Things are hardly more encouraging
 Preface and Acknowledgments ix

with regard to the former Soviet Union and Eastern Europe. Instead of further
democratization, in most of the former Soviet empire we have the survival or
emergence of hybrid forms of regimes with a tendency to become fully author-
itarian. Russia and some of the former republics of the USSR are in the lead. In
parts of Central and Eastern Europe, real progress in democratization is being
eviscerated and basically destroyed by populist governments, most obviously in
the case of Hungary, but also in Poland. On the periphery of Europe, in Turkey,
President Erdogan surpasses even the Hungarian Orbán in the undermining of
democracy. In India, a country previously in the vanguard of democratic consti-
tutionalism, a populist prime minister and his party are challenging impressive
historical achievements in the name of ethno-​religious nationalism. And yet, at
the same time, the outcome of the 2020 US election, an event with obvious inter-
national significance, indicates that constitutional democracy can hold and even
recover in the face of populist challenge.
We write this book to try to understand the logic of populism (in its left and
right versions), its link to authoritarianism despite its democratic pretensions
and concessions to liberal democracy, and the underlying causes for its cur-
rent successes in coming to power. We also write it in search of democratic
alternatives, very much needed today. The US drama helps renew our hope that
with enough civil society pressure for greater social justice, and more democ-
racy, with the help of actors in political society (parties) who insist on the observ-
ance of democratic and constitutionalist norms, and with the help of impartial
civil servants in the judiciary and in the state administrations whose professional
integrity and commitment to their oaths of office matter more than politics and
enable them to resist political pressure, democracy can be preserved and democ-
ratized: made more inclusive and responsive to the unmet needs and demands
of groups. But given the severity of the existing threats, optimism is uncalled for.
It will take a great deal of cogent analysis, political prudence, courage, and hard
work to fend off the irresponsible firebrands and political opportunists fueling
the populist threat, on all sides of the political spectrum. For us, two conclusions
follow. First, it is possible to defend democracy, as the new democratic civil and
political society actors have shown in the case of the United States, as has the
impressive integrity of many involved in the legal and administrative systems of
“the state” and the states. And second, defeats of the populist challenge, with its
authoritarian logic, cannot be secure without seriously addressing the democ-
racy, welfare, and cultural deficits of really existing liberal democracies.
We wish to acknowledge and thank those who have helped us bring this work
to fruition. The two authors extensively discussed all of the chapters of this book
before and after drafts were written. As a result, they were extensively revised. We
both are fully responsible for each of the claims, arguments, and conclusions in
the book.
x Preface and Acknowledgments

We received support for this project, individually and jointly by more people
than we can possibly mention here.
Andrew Arato wishes to thank New School colleagues and especially grad-
uate students who have supported him, both domestic and international, and
from whom he is learned a lot concerning all aspects of this topic. I learned a
great deal from the work of older students, now professors, in the area of populist
studies: Carlos de la Torre, Nicolas Lynch, Alberto Olvera, Enrique Peruzzotti,
Martin Plot, Margarita Palacios, Claudia Heiss, and Nicolas Figureoa. De la
Torre was especially kind to include me in two edited volumes: The Promise
and Perils of Populism (2015); and, my article co-​authored with Jean L. Cohen
on “Civil Society, Populism and Religion” in the Routledge Handbook of Global
Populism (2019). In recent years it was from young scholars in particular, from
Mexico, Argentina, Turkey, Iran, and India, like Melissa Amezcua, Emanuel
Guerisoli, Nuri Can Akin, Bahareh Ebne Alian, Arya Vaghayenegar, and
Udeepta Chakravarty that I have learned the most. Among the faculty I would
single out Richard Bernstein, Dmitri Nikulin, Andreas Kalyvas, Federico
Finchelstein, Chiara Bottici, Omri Boehm, Benoit Challand, Carlos Forment, Eli
Zaretsky, and provocative debating partner Nancy Fraser for their support. As
to institutions, and their leaders, I am especially grateful to Hector Raul Solis
Gadea, rector at the University of Guadalajara for repeatedly inviting me to the
Guadalajara Book Fair and to the Center of Social Sciences (2013–​2014) he led,
along with Jochen Kemner and the CALAS program at the same university and
in Costa Rica in 2018 and 2019, who have given me a fellowship and invited me
to lecture. I am grateful to Michael Ignatieff and Zoltán Miklósi for inviting me
for three lectures at the Central European University in Budapest, 2018, 2019,
and 2021, and similarly Paul Blokker and Gábor Attila Tóth at the University
of Trento. I thank Gábor Halmai for twice sponsoring me, the second time as
a senior Fernand Braudel fellow, at the European University Institute (EUI) in
Florence, and allowing me to learn from him in matters constitutional. Finally,
I thank Silvia von Steinsdorff and Ertug Tombus for inviting me to a conference
at Humboldt University in Berlin in 2018 and the organizers at the Center for the
Humanities and Social Change at the same university who invited me as a vis-
iting fellow during the summer of 2019.
Jean L. Cohen would like to thank Columbia University for its generous leave
policy enabling her to research and write this book. I would also like to thank
the European University Institute for awarding me a Fernand Braudel Senior
Fellowship in 2020 for which I prepared several lectures on populism despite the
fact that due to the pandemic I was unable to go to Florence, Italy, to deliver the
talks. As I write, the plan is to do so in May 2021, if possible. I am grateful to Rahel
Jaeggi for inviting me to be a senior fellow at the Center for the Humanities and
Social Change, at Humboldt University, Berlin, Germany, during the summer of
 Preface and Acknowledgments xi

2019, where I delivered lectures and participated in panels on populism in addi-

tion to teaching in the summer school. Of course, I am grateful to my students
who have participated in my courses on populism over the past five years. Their
insights and the high level of discussion that always occurs in both graduate and
undergraduate courses at Columbia helped me clarify my own ideas. The same
is true of the conferences where I lectured both abroad and in the United States
Again I thank Columbia University for sponsoring several conferences
I organized and lectured in on populism. These include the 2017 conference on
populism and religion I co-​organized with Alexander Stille, for which I thank
the Institute for Religion, Culture and Public Life (IRCPL), the School of
Journalism and the Department of Political Science; the journal Constellations
25th Anniversary Conference Democracy in an Age of Crisis: (co-​organized by
myself, Andreas Kalyvas, and Amy Allen) for which I also thank the Columbia
University Department of Political Science, and the Center for Critical Theory
at Columbia Law School and The New School, for co-​sponsoring. Amongst the
many conferences to which I was invited to speak on populism I would like to
thank the organizers of the 2019 panel on populism and religion at Sciences
Po in Paris (Julie Saada and Astrid von Busekist); the organizers of the 2019
CSPT (Conference for the Study of Political Thought), “Parties, Partisans and
Movements,” held at Yale University for including me amongst the paper givers;
Ertug Tombus, Jan Werner Muller, Anna Bettin Kaiser, and Sylvia von Steinsdorff
for inviting me to speak on populism and the politics of resentment at the 2018
conference at Humboldt University in Berlin; Andreas Kalyvas for inviting me to
speak on the panel “Populism” at The New School in 2017; and Artemy Magun
of the European University at St. Petersburg, Russia, for inviting me to the con-
ference Civil Society in the XXI Century in Spring 2017, held at the Smolny
Institute, Petersburg, where I spoke on populism, civil society, and religion.
The introduction of this book draws on Andrew Arato, “Political theology
and populism,” Social Research: An International Quarterly 80.1 (2013) and our
joint article “Civil Society, Populism and Religion,” Constellations 24.3 (2017).
Chapters 1 and 4 draw on Andrew Arato’s “Populism, Constitutional Courts,
and Civil Society,” in C. Landfried ed., Judicial Power. How Constitutional Courts
Affect Political Transformations (2019) and “How We Got Here? Transition
Failures, Their Causes and the Populist Interest in the Constitution,” Philosophy
& Social Criticism 45.9–​10 (2019). Chapter 2 draws on Jean L. Cohen’s “Hollow
Parties and their Movement-​ization: The Populist Conundrum,” Philosophy and
Social Criticism 45.9–​10 (2019). The introduction and Chapter 5 also draw on
Jean L. Cohen’s “Populism and the Politics of Resentment,” Jus Cogens 1.1 (2019).
Chapter 3 draws on her “What’s Wrong with the Normative Theory (and the
Actual Practice) of Left Populism,” Constellations, 26.3 (2019).
 Introduction: Defining Populism

Why publish another book on contemporary populism in an already increas-

ingly crowded scholarly field? As authors of several works on civil society, au-
thoritarian regimes, sovereignty, and democratization, we believe that on many
relevant issues we have new things to say, with more grounding theoretically
than most works on the subject. Indeed, we think that the tradition of critical
theory is not yet represented in the growing literature on contemporary pop-
ulism, amazingly enough given the early interest in authoritarian forms of the
founders of the critical theory tradition, and the later important work of the
second generation concerning the public sphere and the changing structure of
capitalism. We aim to fill this gap. More importantly, most existing works have
paid little attention to the subject of democratic alternatives to populist politics.
At best, many have assumed or even argued that the only alternative is to defend
liberal democracy as it is or to return to this form as it was. Others like Ernesto
Laclau, much more questionably, strongly imply, if never fully claim, that the al-
ternative must be a complete replacement of liberal dimensions of representative
democracy. We agree with neither of these options. All our chapters will be con-
cerned with the problem of the democratization of democracy1 and several will
consider alternatives under headings such as the expansion of the political role
of civil society and the reconstruction of social democracy. As critical theorists,
we believe that liberal democracy is by its nature an unfinished and incomplete
project. Accordingly, the contemporary halting or even reversal of its democratic
expansion plays a key role in opening the terrain to populist challenge in its var-
ious forms.
Thus the political reasons for writing our book are distinct. We doubt that,
even in the relatively short run, liberal democracy can be successfully defended
by a conservative relation to its contemporary forms, i.e., based on a desired
return to liberal parliamentarism or presidentialism as they were in the past.
Almost everywhere these are under strain, whether because of internal oligar-
chic tendencies of representative systems, the decline of party representation, or
strong external constraints, due to globalized capitalism, on the ability of dem-
ocratic states to deliver improvements of social welfare or equal life chances to
populations.2 We also do not believe that populism in any of its forms can suc-
cessfully address what we will call three deficits: those of democracy, welfare,
and social solidarity. We will argue, and hopefully show, that the very logic of
2 Populism and Civil Society

populism, as we define it and as it exists today in both left and right variants,
points to political authoritarianism and inconsistent, arbitrary, poorly thought
out, or clientelistic economic and social policies even where, empirically, various
tendencies, including populism’s organizational forms that we will note, produce
countervailing tendencies.3 Furthermore, as in the case of liberal democracy that
we wish to defend through its further democratization, we do not wish to deny
that contemporary populism has a point that should be taken seriously. This we
see in its critical dimension, especially in the early phase when populism is a
movement in civil society. Thus our attitude to both liberal democracy and pop-
ulism is that of immanent criticism:4 in one case we wish to defend the counter-
factual norms against existing forms of institutionalization and in the other the
critical dimension against strong authoritarian tendencies that are almost always
fully evident when populism achieves political power. Our perspective therefore
is to learn from the crises of liberal democracy, of which populism is perhaps the
most important if not the only symptom, and to begin to outline alternatives to
both liberal conservatism (represented even by many recent forms of social de-
mocracy) and populist authoritarianism.
This introduction consists of five sections. First, we will consider the method-
ological tools needed to define the phenomenon of populism. Next, we generate
a preliminary definition of the topos through an immanent critique of Ernest’s
Laclau’s theory of the same. This will be followed by an attempted correction of
the first results through ideal typical construction using three empirically de-
rived criteria: reliance on elections, orientation to constitutional politics, and
the utilization of “host ideologies” that are present in virtually all contemporary
populisms if they become politically relevant or successful. After having pro-
duced an expanded middle-​range definition, that in our view leads to the dis-
tinct populist logic, we consider four organization forms populism can take that
should not be seen as an inevitable stage model: mobilization, party, govern-
ment, and regime. We end the introduction with our plan for the five chapters
of the book.

What Is Populism? How to Define the Phenomenon

Almost everyone acknowledges that populism is a contested and often polemical

concept and given the many historical and now ideological forms that have been
listed under this term, the great difficulty involved in coming up with a definition
that includes neither too much nor too little. There is today a certain conver-
gence among attempts to minimally identify the phenomenon, but this in itself
does not produce sufficient conceptual clarity.
 Introduction 3

In previous writings, we have relied on two methodologies to help define

populism: immanent critique and ideal typical construction. As for the first,
following above all Marx’s critique of political economy, we select the best af-
firmative or ideological theory of a social phenomenon and try to use its main
components to develop a new theory that both uncovers dimensions suppressed
by the original (“defetishization”) or confronts their normative assumptions with
their false realization (“immanent critique of ideology”). Here we have an easier
time than Marx, since in his case there were many significant theories of the
emerging capitalist economy among which he had to choose the best, according
to his judgment and background historical knowledge. In our case populism,
whether of the right or the left, seems to have lacked many significant affirma-
tive theorists.5 Fortunately, Ernesto Laclau’s work,6 and the related but different
studies of Margaret Canovan and Chantal Mouffe, fill this theoretical or ideolog-
ical lacuna.
It is important for us, insofar as we have always been very critical of popu-
lism in light of its supposed authoritarian tendencies, that Laclau, Mouffe, and
Canovan all affirm populist politics, if in three different ways, as a significant
radical democratic alternative. Our study too is committed to the values of dem-
ocratic politics, and we study populism with the background assumption, based
on cases, that it represents a challenge and even a danger to these very values.
We do not however wish to presuppose authoritarianism on a definitional level.
Building our definition on elements derived from Ernesto Laclau first and fore-
most, should protect us against the charge of tautology based on normative
commitments. Only if our critical treatment can uncover, on the level of ar-
gumentation, the presence of an authoritarian logic that can be demonstrated
in terms of most relevant cases, will we be justified in rejecting the democratic
claims these authors repeatedly make.
Especially Laclau and Mouffe, but also Canovan, open themselves to a critique
resembling defetishization, by systematically suppressing the key dimension of
populism in governmental power, which must be recovered to understand the
telos or “the logic” of the phenomenon better and more deeply. When this is
done, the way is open to the critique of ideology. The democratic norms of pop-
ulist theorists, which seem to be implicit in their critique of really existing liberal
democracies, can and should be confronted with the strongly authoritarian ten-
dencies of populist governments and regimes, already decipherable in populist
movements.
The second methodological move we undertake is more dependent on Max
Weber than Karl Marx. Like Weber, we do not endorse Marx’s Hegelian confi-
dence in grasping the essence of the phenomenon in a relatively few develop-
mental elements. Aided by the historical experience of many cases, and their best
4 Populism and Civil Society

recent analyses, we can both re-​emphasize those elements from the criticized
ideologies that yield a coherent picture of the phenomenon and add to them if
it turns out that the immanent criticism of populist theory and ideology left out
important dimensions of the phenomenon. Such omissions are likely because
Laclau, being mainly a philosopher, has neglected social scientific as well as his-
torical treatments of the phenomenon.7 The resulting combination then must
again be tested against both theoretical explorations of origins and causes, as well
as the history and tendencies of significant contemporary phenomena often re-
ferred to as “populist.”
We know, as did Weber, that empirical cases cannot be understood at all
without the construction of ideal typical concepts of interpretation, but also
that historical experience will rarely fully correspond to the conceptual type.
Nevertheless, we do not believe that the selection of cases so interpreted can
take place in a value-​free manner. For us, the value that guides our effort is a
commitment to political democracy, to liberal democracy as a developmental
form, leading us to select those cases where this value has become an impor-
tant stake in the struggle, whether electoral or on the level of opposing social
movements in civil society. It is this relation to value (Weber’s Wertbeziehung)
combined with historical knowledge of different contexts that will be essential
if the set of types we construct is not to have so few elements as to include too
many cases8 and thus risk losing the distinction between populist and popular
politics, nor too many and thus exclude important ones where democracy is
under challenge.

What Is Populism: Immanent Critique

Everyone will agree with the statement that populism is a political phenomenon.
Yet how to distinguish it from other political projects? The literature seems to
suggest four types of answers: as a strategy, as a style, as a set of organized ideas,
or as a discourse, in each version leading to a political logic, whether authori-
tarian or democratic in the view of specific analysts.9 Immanent critique is meth-
odologically linked to discourses, and it is here that we must therefore begin. It
is discursive elements that are stressed by Laclau and the so-​called Essex School.
Following Laclau, we must understand discourse as involving both language and
action, the predominance of one or the other depending on context and populist
actors. We note that populists can but often do not call themselves by this name,
and can self-​define according to other ideological borrowings (such host ideolo-
gies are discussed further later in the chapter).
 Introduction 5

Our critique of Laclau’s text and its theoretical foundations in the work of Carl
Schmitt has been carried out elsewhere,10 thus here we can restrict ourselves to
the list of the main elements of populism derived from Laclau’s and partially
Canovan’s complementary work:

1. An appeal to popular sovereignty as the fundamental norm violated by ex-

isting institutions whether liberal democratic or authoritarian.11
2. The rhetorical or ideologically thin construction of the empty signifier of
the people in such a way as to construct chains of imagined “equivalence”
among a wide heterogeneity of demands, grievances, and constituencies.12
3. The symbolic representation13 of the whole of this construct by a mobi-
lized part.14
4. The embodiment even of this part in a single charismatic leader, with
whom the mobilized part of the population has a highly emotional
relationship.15
5. The construction of a friend–​enemy dichotomy16 (“the frontier of antag-
onism”17) between the people so defined and its “other” that is seen as the
establishment in power along with its beneficiaries and allies, both internal
and external.18
6. The insistence on a strong notion of politics or “the political” along with a
disinterest in mere “ordinary” politics or policy; this understanding of pol-
itics, often articulated in terms of the constituent (vs. “constituted”) power,
is based on will rather than social process as rationally understood.

We should stress from the outset, that each of these elements may and do ap-
pear in other political projects. It is the combination that is populist, in Laclau’s
understanding, and, as we will try to show, authoritarian in its logic.19 He has
strong though hardly incontrovertible arguments linking the six dimensions.
Popular sovereignty (element 1) as the fundamental norm cannot be politi-
cally relevant without the construction first and identification second of the
subject whose sovereignty is at stake, “the people.” Given societal plurality and
heterogeneity, the subject can be only discursively constructed, by a rhetorical
chain that equalizes various demands and injuries, a chain of equivalences (el-
ement 2). Mere rhetoric focusing on equality is however too weak to unify “the
friend” without the simultaneous construction (and “demonization”) of the
antagonist, “the enemy,” and of “the frontier of antagonism” (element 5). Only
then by a combination of inclusion and exclusion can the subject, the genuine
people, be identified. By its very nature given prior heterogeneity and new an-
tagonism it will only be a part of the population (element 3). Even that part
will be too large to speak and to act in a unified manner spontaneously. Thus
6 Populism and Civil Society

embodiment in a leader is needed (element 4), a single one if disunity is not to

re-​appear in a collegium on top, and a charismatic one if it is to be able to gain
recognition from “the bottom,” the mobilized grassroots of the part. Finally,
fundamental antagonism is not only to enemy actors but to the system created
and dominated by them, often called “the establishment.” Thus (element 6),
the stress on the political (le politique), the foundational, or the constituent
power follows from the rest, dominated by the imagery of the united people
led by and embodied in a charismatic leader. Admittedly, it does not follow
that populists should be as disinterested in ordinary politics (la politique) as is
Laclau, but if so interested it would have to be for instrumental reasons. But it
does follow that the constituent power should not be a one-​time act exhausted
by a constitution, but a permanent possibility often exercised even under a new
constitution.20
It is important for theoretical reasons to stress the combination of the elem-
ents in the definition. In our view some of them can exist apart from populism
under alternative interpretations. Meeting one or two of the criteria here, like the
related stresses on popular sovereignty (1) and the constituent power (6), may be
positive characteristics of democratic politics in other respects strongly opposed
to populism, charismatic embodiment, and friend–​enemy antagonism. Almost
all versions of constitutional democracy allow and even promote popular (vs.
populist) leadership and leave room for the constituent power of citizens, which
can however be exercised in highly democratic ways involving pluralism and
self-​limitation.21 Even the very common discourse referring to “the people”
(2) can be harmless or rhetorically productive if understood as a plurality rather
than a unified subject. It is its being combined with (3), (4), and (5), represen-
tation of the whole by a part, embodiment in a charismatic leader, and friend–​
enemy relations that leads to the populist interpretation of these dimensions,
which are capable of alternative democratic interpretations.
Probably, many relevant cases will miss one of the elements: (1) and (6) are
the most likely candidates, based on empirical experience, though some argue
that charismatic leadership can also be dispensed with.22 It is the combination
of (3) part for the whole dialectic, (4) embodiment, and (5) friend–​enemy jux-
taposition that is most central, and for some it may be enough for a “minimal
definition”23 usable for today’s main cases. But, logically, they need the scaf-
folding of a “thin ideology” rooted in the deep-​seated imaginary of the dem-
ocratic age to be persuasive, and, at the very least when radically challenging
the existing system, the idea of re-​foundation or appeal to the constituent
power is almost always implied.24 Certainly the logic of populism is inherent
in this combination. There is however also the question of which elements are
stressed in a given case, and this will vary depending in particular on whether
 Introduction 7

the examined phase of populism is that of a movement, government, or regime.

Thus element 1, leading to a critique of existing democracies, will be strongest
in the movement phase, while the insistence on foundation and re-​foundation
may be the strongest when a populist government encounters or discovers the
need to form a new regime.

What Is Populism: Construction of the Ideal Type

Even if the six elements derived from Laclau have internal relations more
common to structural analyses, they also yield an ideal typical construction.
As such they raise two methodological questions from the point of view of em-
pirical social science: are there too many elements here to include all relevant
cases today and in history, and conversely are there very important regularities
that are not yet included? The first objection represents the point of view of Cas
Mudde and Rovira Kaltwasser, who strongly advocate a minimal definition,25
and is implicitly present in many interpreters own attempts, whether they stress
discourse, ideology, or strategy as the key to populism. These interpreters are
not entirely wrong, a construct with too many components would include too
few cases, tendentially only a single historical case.26 Social science, unlike his-
toriography, needs to be comparative and must analyze both the similarities and
differences of many cases. At the same time, there are strong theoretical and
normative-​political objections to the proposal of minimalism. By excluding
the leader embodying the whole and the part/​whole problem, Mudde and
Kaltwasser neglect the deep internal connection of these elements to what they
stress, namely to fundamental antagonism and speaking in the name of the ge-
neral will. Furthermore, too few criteria would necessarily lead to the inclusion
of too many cases, thus compromising the important differences between what
has been called pre-​populism, classical, and contemporary forms. More impor-
tantly, on the level of politics many grassroots democratic forms would be in-
cluded, thus losing the possibility of distinguishing between the popular and the
populist. Yes, it may be necessary to distinguish (if possible) within populisms of
grassroots vs. top down origins,27 but even then it takes a consideration of other
criteria beyond what minimalism can provide to discover the different and even
contrary logics between populism from below and non-​populist democratic
mobilizations in civil society.28
This brings us to the second possible objection to some definitions, namely
of leaving out too much that may be fundamental. Here alternative minimalist
explanations speak against one another, and necessarily so. Since some focus on
discourse generally or ideology and even style more narrowly, while others on
Another Random Scribd Document
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 Neuroscience - Practice Problems
Winter 2022 - Laboratory

Prepared by: Instructor Smith

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Conclusion 1: Case studies and real-world applications

Learning Objective 1: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 1: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Learning Objective 2: Best practices and recommendations
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Learning Objective 3: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
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- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 3: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Learning Objective 4: Literature review and discussion
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Learning Objective 5: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 6: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Important: Experimental procedures and results
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
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- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Historical development and evolution
• Practical applications and examples
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Example 8: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
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- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
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- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Unit 2: Statistical analysis and interpretation
Definition: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Key Concept: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
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- Note: Important consideration
Important: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
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Example 13: Historical development and evolution
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
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[Figure 14: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Important: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
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[Figure 15: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice Problem 15: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Practical applications and examples
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- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 16: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice Problem 16: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Note: Literature review and discussion
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Historical development and evolution
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
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Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Key terms and definitions
• Key terms and definitions
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- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Section 3: Theoretical framework and methodology
Remember: Historical development and evolution
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Remember: Key terms and definitions
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
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- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 22: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Important: Study tips and learning strategies
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 23: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Study tips and learning strategies
• Study tips and learning strategies
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- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Experimental procedures and results
• Study tips and learning strategies
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- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Current trends and future directions
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
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- Note: Important consideration
Example 27: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
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- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 28: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Important: Key terms and definitions
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- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 29: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice Problem 29: Case studies and real-world applications
• Theoretical framework and methodology
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- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Lesson 4: Critical analysis and evaluation
Remember: Ethical considerations and implications
• Ethical considerations and implications
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[Figure 31: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Practical applications and examples
• Key terms and definitions
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[Figure 32: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Important: Best practices and recommendations
• Fundamental concepts and principles
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Practice Problem 33: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
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- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Ethical considerations and implications
• Case studies and real-world applications
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- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 35: Best practices and recommendations
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
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- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Literature review and discussion
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- Note: Important consideration
Note: Current trends and future directions
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
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- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 38: Experimental procedures and results
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
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[Figure 39: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Historical development and evolution
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
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- Note: Important consideration
Lesson 5: Assessment criteria and rubrics
Definition: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Key terms and definitions
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- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 42: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Important: Best practices and recommendations
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Case studies and real-world applications
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
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- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 44: Experimental procedures and results
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
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Definition: Key terms and definitions
• Best practices and recommendations
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- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
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- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 48: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Example 48: Research findings and conclusions
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
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- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Practical applications and examples
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
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- Note: Important consideration
Test 6: Current trends and future directions
Example 50: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 51: Historical development and evolution
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
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- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 52: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Important: Research findings and conclusions
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 53: Historical development and evolution
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Best practices and recommendations
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Practical applications and examples
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
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[Figure 57: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Key terms and definitions
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- Note: Important consideration
Example 58: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
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Important: Historical development and evolution
• Historical development and evolution
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- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Review 7: Key terms and definitions
Key Concept: Study tips and learning strategies
• Interdisciplinary approaches
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- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Study tips and learning strategies
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- Note: Important consideration
Example 62: Historical development and evolution
• Practical applications and examples
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- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 63: Ethical considerations and implications
• Practical applications and examples
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[Figure 64: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice Problem 64: Literature review and discussion
• Critical analysis and evaluation
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- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 65: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Learning outcomes and objectives
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- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 66: Study tips and learning strategies
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
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- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 67: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Example 67: Current trends and future directions
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
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- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Background 8: Fundamental concepts and principles
Note: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Learning outcomes and objectives
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- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 71: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
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- Note: Important consideration
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Definition: Learning outcomes and objectives
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Important: Interdisciplinary approaches
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[Figure 74: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice Problem 74: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
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Note: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Critical analysis and evaluation
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- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Current trends and future directions
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
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- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Current trends and future directions
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Key Concept: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Test 9: Research findings and conclusions
Important: Literature review and discussion
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
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- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Research findings and conclusions
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
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[Figure 82: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Critical analysis and evaluation
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Definition: Study tips and learning strategies
• Critical analysis and evaluation
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- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Historical development and evolution
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• Interdisciplinary approaches
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Note: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
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Practice Problem 87: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Practical applications and examples
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[Figure 88: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Example 88: Key terms and definitions
• Interdisciplinary approaches
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Remember: Research findings and conclusions
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[Figure 90: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Part 10: Study tips and learning strategies
Practice Problem 90: Literature review and discussion
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
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Key Concept: Assessment criteria and rubrics
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Important: Critical analysis and evaluation
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Important: Fundamental concepts and principles
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Note: Historical development and evolution
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Definition: Learning outcomes and objectives
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Practice Problem 99: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Current trends and future directions
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Introduction 11: Fundamental concepts and principles
Practice Problem 100: Ethical considerations and implications
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
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Practice Problem 101: Key terms and definitions
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
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Remember: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Historical development and evolution
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[Figure 103: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice Problem 103: Current trends and future directions
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Experimental procedures and results
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Study tips and learning strategies
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 107: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 108: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Experimental procedures and results
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 109: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 110: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Background 12: Study tips and learning strategies
Important: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Practice Problem 112: Ethical considerations and implications
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Historical development and evolution
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Literature review and discussion
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 115: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Definition: Research findings and conclusions
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 116: Case studies and real-world applications
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 117: Experimental procedures and results
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 118: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Ethical considerations and implications
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Exercise 13: Experimental procedures and results
Important: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
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