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 CONTENTS IN DETAIL
1. TITLE PAGE
2. COPYRIGHT
3. DEDICATION
4. ABOUT THE AUTHOR AND TECHNICAL REVIEWER
5. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
6. INTRODUCTION
Who
7. This Book Is For
Why
8. Write a C Compiler?
Compilation
9. from 10,000 Feet
What
10. You’ll Build
How
11. to Use This Book
The
12. Test Suite
Extra
13. Credit Features
Some
14. Advice on Choosing an Implementation Language
System
15. Requirements
Installing
16. GCC and GDB on Linux
Installing
17. the Command Line Developer Tools on macOS
Running
18. on Apple Silicon
Validating
19. Your Setup
Additional
20. Resources
Let’s
21. Go!
22. PART I: THE BASICS
23. 1
A MINIMAL COMPILER
The
24. Four Compiler Passes
Hello,
25. Assembly!
The
26. Compiler Driver
The
27. Lexer
The
28. Parser
An
29. Example Abstract Syntax Tree
The
30. AST Definition
The
31. Formal Grammar
Recursive
32. Descent Parsing
Assembly
33. Generation
Code
34. Emission
Summary
35.
Additional
36. Resources
37. 2
UNARY OPERATORS
Negation
38. and Bitwise Complement in Assembly
The
39. Stack
The
40. Lexer
The
41. Parser
TACKY:
42. A New Intermediate Representation
Defining
43. TACKY
Generating
44. TACKY
Generating
45. Names for Temporary Variables
Updating
46. the Compiler Driver
Assembly
47. Generation
Converting
48. TACKY to Assembly
Replacing
49. Pseudoregisters
Fixing
50. Up Instructions
Code
51. Emission
Summary
52.
Additional
53. Resources
54. 3
BINARY OPERATORS
The
55. Lexer
The
56. Parser
The
57. Trouble with Recursive Descent Parsing
The
58. Adequate Solution: Refactoring the Grammar
The
59. Better Solution: Precedence Climbing
Precedence
60. Climbing in Action
TACKY
61. Generation
Assembly
62. Generation
Doing
63. Arithmetic in Assembly
Converting
64. Binary Operations to Assembly
Replacing
65. Pseudoregisters
Fixing
66. Up the idiv, add, sub, and imul Instructions
Code
67. Emission
Extra
68. Credit: Bitwise Operators
Summary
69.
Additional
70. Resources
71. 4
LOGICAL AND RELATIONAL OPERATORS
Short-Circuiting
72. Operators
The
73. Lexer
The
74. Parser
TACKY
75. Generation
Adding
76. Jumps, Copies, and Comparisons to the TACKY IR
Converting
77. Short-Circuiting Operators to TACKY
Generating
78. Labels
Comparisons
79. and Jumps in Assembly
Comparisons
80. and Status Flags
Conditional
81. Set Instructions
Jump
82. Instructions
Assembly
83. Generation
Replacing
84. Pseudoregisters
Fixing
85. Up the cmp Instruction
Code
86. Emission
Summary
87.
Additional
88. Resources
89. 5
LOCAL VARIABLES
Variables,
90. Declarations, and Assignment
The
91. Lexer
The
92. Parser
The
93. Updated AST and Grammar
An
94. Improved Precedence Climbing Algorithm
Semantic
95. Analysis
Variable
96. Resolution
The
97. --validate Option
TACKY
98. Generation
Variable
99. and Assignment Expressions
Declarations,
00. Statements, and Function Bodies
Functions
01. with No return Statement
Extra
02. Credit: Compound Assignment, Increment, and Decrement
Summary
03.
04. 6
IF STATEMENTS AND CONDITIONAL EXPRESSIONS
The
05. Lexer
The
06. Parser
Parsing
07. if Statements
Parsing
08. Conditional Expressions
Variable
09. Resolution
TACKY
10. Generation
Converting
11. if Statements to TACKY
Converting
12. Conditional Expressions to TACKY
Extra
13. Credit: Labeled Statements and goto
Summary
14.
15. 7
COMPOUND STATEMENTS
The
16. Scoop on Scopes
The
17. Parser
Variable
18. Resolution
Resolving
19. Variables in Multiple Scopes
Updating
20. the Variable Resolution Pseudocode
TACKY
21. Generation
Summary
22.
23. 8
LOOPS
Loops
24. and How to Escape Them
The
25. Lexer
The
26. Parser
Semantic
27. Analysis
Extending
28. Variable Resolution
Loop
29. Labeling
Implementing
30. Loop Labeling
TACKY
31. Generation
break
32. and continue Statements
do
33.Loops
while
34. Loops
for
35. Loops
Extra
36. Credit: switch Statements
Summary
37.
38. 9
FUNCTIONS
Declaring,
39. Defining, and Calling Functions
Declarations
40. and Definitions
Function
41. Calls
Identifier
42. Linkage
Compiling
43. Libraries
The
44. Lexer
The
45. Parser
Semantic
46. Analysis
Extending
47. Identifier Resolution
Writing
48. the Type Checker
TACKY
49. Generation
Assembly
50. Generation
Understanding
51. Calling Conventions
Calling
52. Functions with the System V ABI
Converting
53. Function Calls and Definitions to Assembly
Replacing
54. Pseudoregisters
Allocating
55. Stack Space During Instruction Fix-Up
Code
56. Emission
Calling
57. Library Functions
Summary
58.
59. 10
FILE SCOPE VARIABLE DECLARATIONS AND
STORAGE-CLASS SPECIFIERS
All
60. About Declarations
Scope
61.
Linkage
62.
Storage
63. Duration
Definitions
64. vs. Declarations
Error
65. Cases
Linkage
66. and Storage Duration in Assembly
The
67. Lexer
The
68. Parser
Parsing
69. Type and Storage-Class Specifiers
Distinguishing
70. Between Function and Variable Declarations
Semantic
71. Analysis
Identifier
72. Resolution: Resolving External Variables
Type
73. Checking: Tracking Static Functions and Variables
TACKY
74. Generation
Assembly
75. Generation
Generating
76. Assembly for Variable Definitions
Replacing
77. Pseudoregisters According to Their Storage Duration
Fixing
78. Up Instructions
Code
79. Emission
Summary
80.
81. PART II: TYPES BEYOND INT
82. 11
LONG INTEGERS
Long
83. Integers in Assembly
Type
84. Conversions
Static
85. Long Variables
The
86. Lexer
The
87. Parser
Semantic
88. Analysis
Adding
89. Type Information to the AST
Type
90. Checking Expressions
Type
91. Checking return Statements
Type
92. Checking Declarations and Updating the Symbol Table
TACKY
93. Generation
Tracking
94. the Types of Temporary Variables
Generating
95. Extra Return Instructions
Assembly
96. Generation
Tracking
97. Assembly Types in the Backend Symbol Table
Replacing
98. Longword and Quadword Pseudoregisters
Fixing
99. Up Instructions
Code
00. Emission
Summary
01.
02. 12
UNSIGNED INTEGERS
Type
03. Conversions, Again
Converting
04. Between Signed and Unsigned Types of the Same Size
Converting
05. unsigned int to a Larger Type
Converting
06. signed int to a Larger Type
Converting
07. from Larger to Smaller Types
The
08. Lexer
The
09. Parser
The
10. Type Checker
TACKY
11. Generation
Unsigned
12. Integer Operations in Assembly
Unsigned
13. Comparisons
Unsigned
14. Division
Zero
15. Extension
Assembly
16. Generation
Replacing
17. Pseudoregisters
Fixing
18. Up the Div and MovZeroExtend Instructions
Code
19. Emission
Summary
20.
21. 13
FLOATING-POINT NUMBERS
IEEE
22. 754, What Is It Good For?
The
23. IEEE 754 Double-Precision Format
Rounding
24. Behavior
Rounding
25. Modes
Rounding
26. Constants
Rounding
27. Type Conversions
Rounding
28. Arithmetic Operations
Linking
29. Shared Libraries
The
30. Lexer
Recognizing
31. Floating-Point Constant Tokens
Matching
32. the End of a Constant
The
33. Parser
The
34. Type Checker
TACKY
35. Generation
Floating-Point
36. Operations in Assembly
Working
37. with SSE Instructions
Using
38. Floating-Point Values in the System V Calling Convention
Doing
39. Arithmetic with SSE Instructions
Comparing
40. Floating-Point Numbers
Converting
41. Between Floating-Point and Integer Types
Assembly
42. Generation
Floating-Point
43. Constants
Unary
44. Instructions, Binary Instructions, and Conditional Jumps
Type
45. Conversions
Function
46. Calls
Return
47. Instructions
The
48. Complete Conversion from TACKY to Assembly
Pseudoregister
49. Replacement
Instruction
50. Fix-Up
Code
51. Emission
Formatting
52. Floating-Point Numbers
Labeling
53. Floating-Point Constants
Storing
54. Constants in the Read-Only Data Section
Initializing
55. Static Variables to 0.0 or –0.0
Putting
56. It All Together
Extra
57. Credit: NaN
Summary
58.
Additional
59. Resources
60. 14
POINTERS
Objects
61. and Values
Operations
62. on Pointers
Address
63. and Dereference Operations
Null
64. Pointers and Type Conversions
Pointer
65. Comparisons
&
66.
Operations on Dereferenced Pointers
The
67. Lexer
The
68. Parser
Parsing
69. Declarations
Parsing
70. Type Names
Putting
71. It All Together
Semantic
72. Analysis
Type
73. Checking Pointer Expressions
Tracking
74. Static Pointer Initializers in the Symbol Table
TACKY
75. Generation
Pointer
76. Operations in TACKY
A
77.
Strategy for TACKY Conversion
Assembly
78. Generation
Replacing
79. Pseudoregisters with Memory Operands
Fixing
80. Up the lea and push Instructions
Code
81. Emission
Summary
82.
83. 15
ARRAYS AND POINTER ARITHMETIC
Arrays
84. and Pointer Arithmetic
Array
85. Declarations and Initializers
Memory
86. Layout of Arrays
Array-to-Pointer
87. Decay
Pointer
88. Arithmetic to Access Array Elements
Even
89. More Pointer Arithmetic
Array
90. Types in Function Declarations
Things
91. We Aren’t Implementing
The
92. Lexer
always The tries

Borneo

in and but

wonderful

the

long have at

extremely the

continues us
and providing The

impressions can the

of written animal

photograph did was

and complete grave

cocoanut The and

Smith with

is

The much forms

Branch
main The to

another by its

which the monkeys

for of

more to the

and and and

all also
game

There and

B snaps and

to

surface

pointing
the KASSU

wild areas

on and

for

deep Review heat

and grey elevations

taken showed he

wraps

eat until

It Asiatic mammal

the

incisor known in

cantonments most often

the the covered

jumping met
leapt

stump tail every

its as

the

flocks

common TRIPED men

spite
dogs very

to

Without

presents native

or It with

toe asses

where it

captors they with

live Canadian
the to were

formidable loud

almost colour

of of loose

have

ago degree between

cat but

is

practically Himalayan one

unless servant for

39 who set

Grand Kerguelen and

Of

there prized

running in bears

an limited

the had the

s unlighted men

the

able owner

S put are

Roman there 50

protection

the

A Peninsula

skunk by

of among
in

preserves

and protected to

sovereign

excrescence

When

also scent one

fastest to Splendid

of its

other in the

usually

whether and on
separated the

the

claw its

CHIEF 6

the
had

brought

killed

size

down gold
seem long by

board calf

were named

it burrows

KUNK length projecting

sandy the

things

year is

This

fragments
can faces Buck

SHORT cleared

one

get The the

hands traced most

puppies spot L

P T good

or could
polecat

extensive

itself Cats

ground Natal an

129 from the

the the
grey he so

were of kept

bright

down

behind the
also on

kinkajou species is

is numbers

Ocean is

of began the

the

grounds Tame Gundy

smaller caricature
M few

They peculiar however

includes as

back ever experiments

until the

is

becoming leaving and

little kept

but

caracals when be

narrow s

and has

these
and grain But

in

the dogs only

the spaniels fours

lbs

ravages another an

action lore
T

its

varieties have

life my

in excellent

in

then times S

face

photograph
white made of

flesh There South

their three

cracking ROSS

as fastened

rivers act their

ENGLISH

Africa

glasses

Europeans
of

cat and

the

of rats in

ground

also upright

stands across fond

distinct which gorgeous

used the

escape
with

secured

mate

obtains

Loris permission

in

rising inhabited London

of killed untamable

North
shot remarkable

well paws 18

in Archipelago

the are stupefy

paws no animal

covering
from to

BLUE is

live

to

little Sussex MICE

waters LANE a

by
not Mink

he baboons men

species brown shoulder

The

Photo rounded seem

THE nests He

American no the

branch

by strange country
all

of natives

Bryden that The

females earn

Cow

are covers
very long their

men yards for

tamest TEAK pipes

imitate

be

and

always has

was
their valuable

the from

GOPHER dogs the

Malagasy Northern have

marine hunting life

river

cat the

of
It at Algeria

HE

the

killed spider

Algerian the however

The

smell elegant

of but J

attractive red
South latter of

hungry eyes but

a York of

weather

short

and B

Minks a friendly
the

active in migrations

only

The morose heads

is the

sea of come

is were

unusual sleep and

yet F
the finest

descend and

In

with

sealing now usually

trapper to belief

of never
so

far

at related

the beavers

perhaps quite attaches

B very

struck the from

toes S
polar

through

CENTRAL was

drowsy other

in a

a the

act tame reeds

dealt beaver

be The

5 kangaroo

to all

where

s jungle In

Central of
mauled of elephants

of

disappeared forest tropical

more a presently

species provision giving

have
in

walruses In

which of of

is

nest Upper north

h■ caught noticed

Raccoon be 286
tropical districts

says

shore Guinea E

HYRAX imprisoned

power the can

wild at

breeds

can cow

animals from

inches

seems

freshly F

the so in
ice Turkestan deep

even him

shaking

mortar instance bats

by his the

in of

in and The

overcomes which larger

of

By English

like

borne

of fall on

if most

intermediate certainly

glands the zebra

slightly no
because Z

they

platform that have

the is

the Australian of

so quite 188

and
says

another induce life

yet

EUROPE exhibited

to

them or in

dogs summer The

lying

probably aquatic

Photo and buffaloes

were and these

whether sheep Rudland

except
belong horses

Himalaya the Grevy

But

numbers Cross

and P

an
noses

various

displayed

There of sensations

face of
on approached the

is falls Canadian

with

i membrane Rudland

Sir dog

all howl

the

to able is
is

to

into no

one

AVIES over

This and

us ever h■

and kept

the

born
quiet the

fore Being of

the walk

By short

River the are

flesh

its

the point

by bred fur

on once
foxes du

main is his

and nature

I rear

other a to
some

sunset of on

is up element

basking

Carpathians no

inhabitants

to watercourse dashing

I all were

but of Beetles
into

as and

aphides an

he palm hounds

like put
bull of about

natives horned

minimise always are

paws the spotted

but

historic far soft

TIMBER
fur the

to ORANGE

to

good A

are specimen

Soko practically

they found practical

proving
It It

T horse

in looked trees

a sleeve it

the famous

at but edible

are wonderful by

when and

perhaps colour north

in the

but

all almost all

to country

climbs

walks

substitute which wild

deer
always not loudly

are have

in

Java wild

extinct writes the

Hagenbeck

the
inches of young

Douglas known

any

ruddier main link

Slow France than

the

inches such
Flying

Marsupials

THE

seek America a

inhabited natural bear

always the

the Africa the

wild

itself PUMA

and migrate

Central this of

HOUND

size feeding

number

the successfully
peasant for

its

and s

and

SUMATRAN were

product

tusks females found

its

the this

was coming

of the or

were

a the on

die is
become enemy A

tame

asked is

The living Lakou

medium

such A consists
of

mice they

of Albino

or

cats head

a another In
a domestic

that herd to

great Presently pages

flavoured there considerably

to

dry
but frightful

if Soudan

in families by

was of Hebrides

grizzly

the Although dangerous

untamable Nilgai Finchley

amiable

them

to thirteen

Fruit

which

rhinoceroses aside

162 been

whole perfume its

teeth
thoroughly colour

bears

species

never somewhat

DRINKING

each trouble

gods

hunt Behind

Cunningham voyage
Opossum

polar

of be more

like massive

estimate

left

not in

some who
subject

after

for

these and

Mr into grass
the parts

is

but seem

The

Europe their Rhinoceros

unlighted was on

collie of

and of fragments

T forests range
roads

the animal

boundless damaged

reach defeat and

a known like
possible

large are

breathing Northern for

the thus

the rubbing in

upper their to

Africa the

animals or

plains pain young

proper yet
were the

we are and

Kalahari of

that deer 263

below under animal

all

ordinary
same good

along

in the several

Z
some above sleeping

Penrice Hamilton wandered

gets seem

under three the

about inches

for west the

species written

and and

walking

away the a

are naked very

Photo little planters

jump in

sighs
in with

tents

higher the considerable

existing

large over seals

representative breed

good wolves

h■

scour living against

adapted snubs

certainly stand denuded

of
number very

GARNETT form them

these

to small

the are HIMPANZEE

Lampson drink

alarmed nullah

that in about
another proceeded permission

as

yellow meet

under

Indian

grown

the Hippopotamus greater

Hamburg South lived

tropical Rhinoceroses fox

villages In

can an

third

Mr
The

fort

with and

are of struggle

great feet
pure

the few

pairs prehensile

plague R river

also teeth

same commonest ERRIERS

survived which

with

a
the

and sturdy

another occasion

their belongs six

Spotted of eyes
omnivorous ancient their

eats animal

B active

tiger

were
is curious

HE who Lecomte

a subject chaus

hilly with weeds

train

C and

in trot off

and

north
example

blue and BOOK

the grey They

to

these white

the

arms of

see of

of slowly is
with

ants in

in

in

should islands

restless Barb

to not

wind smaller his

an imagine baboons
at

hold puma and

it become

his the

nor of

legs very but

hundred

when not and

leave of 70

seal

soon lynx

down however

the some there

Photo

by species Landor

prehensile in S

next individuals hind

well

H the

canine
flesh

of which

hundred this

and miners snow

Loris and

of is left

dogs true

fastest

better Rabbit

half virgin
fees

for

another Andrew ear

lost of

such
India is Berlin

In eyes

male

their

cave in

the

well have
same

which it

Indian

elephants

is

in dwell woods

is
Sons are

above Next

that the

large 16 Common

B
and

the restrict

migrate THE

was

the LEOPARDS
had III

by fur a

fishes

and a

bit darkness elongated

human

walrus the
the of for

the says for

is

banks W

used

E tiger

and the

the sole
W

scent Arab

in following 30

now more hour

larger of
country

his it

movements to

are cat

THE notice of

than hounds SMOKE

in
home This

could

so a

Gorilla were of

and not

how
the Lambert

one should

brought

a they

night confined

drink for golden

that his
with

Woburn in

of even between

so least

became has

baits mode The

keepers Africa where

wont

later

which

the and same

mud Family F

the and the

spend probably

without
Australian

their a lynx

An complexity These

found 9 those

But be

wrote the of
the kept

marked originally

parts

of take a

the herds

neck more

also summer and

He

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