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ffirs.qxd 10/29/2005 11:55 AM Page i

FUNDAMENTALS OF
ELECTROCHEMISTRY
ffirs.qxd 10/29/2005 11:55 AM Page ii

THE ELECTROCHEMICAL SOCIETY SERIES

The Electrochemical Society

65 South Main Street
Pennington, NJ 08534-2839
http://www.electrochem.org

A complete list of the titles in this series appears at the end of this volume.
ffirs.qxd 10/29/2005 11:56 AM Page iii

FUNDAMENTALS OF
ELECTROCHEMISTRY

Second Edition

V. S. BAGOTSKY
A. N. Frumkin Institute of Physical Chemistry and Electrochemistry
Russian Academy of Sciences
Moscow, Russia

Sponsored by
THE ELECTROCHEMICAL SOCIETY, INC. Pennington, New Jersey

A JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC., PUBLICATION

ffirs.qxd 10/29/2005 11:56 AM Page iv

Copyright © 2006 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved

Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey

Published simultaneously in Canada

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data:

Bagotsky, V. S. (Vladimir Sergeevich)

Fundamentals of electrochemistry / V. S. Bagotsky—2nd ed.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN-13 978-0-471-70058-6 (cloth : alk. paper)
ISBN-10 0-471-70058-4 (cloth : alk. paper)
1. Electrochemistry I. Title.
QD553.B23 2005
541⬘.37—dc22 2005003083

Printed in the United States of America

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
ftoc.qxd 10/29/2005 12:01 PM Page v

CONTENTS

Contributors xv
Preface to the Second Edition xvii
Preface to the First Edition xix
List of Photographs xxii
Abbreviations xxiii
Symbols xxv

PART I BASIC CONCEPTS 1

1. Electric Currents in Ionic Conductors 3

1.1 Various Types of Conductors, 3
1.2 Ions in Electrolyte Solutions, 4
1.3 Conductivity of Electrolyte Solutions, 5
1.4 Circuits Involving Ionic Conductors. Electrodes, 9
1.5 Passage of Current Through Electrodes. Electrode Reactions, 10
1.6 Classification of Electrodes and Electrode Reactions, 12
1.7 Faraday’s Laws, 15
1.8 Equations for Mass Balance, 16
1.9 Sign Convention for Currents and Fluxes, 18

2. Electrode Potentials 19
2.1 Interfacial Potential Differences (Galvani Potentials), 20
2.2 Exchange Currents, 23
2.3 Open-Circuit Voltages, 24
2.4 Electrode Potentials, 26
2.5 Cell Voltage at Nonzero Current, 29

3. Thermodynamics of Electrochemical Systems 33

3.1 Conventional and Undefined Parameters, 33
3.2 Thermodynamic Functions in Electrochemistry, 34
v
ftoc.qxd 10/29/2005 12:01 PM Page vi

vi CONTENTS

3.3 Thermodynamic Activity, 36

3.4 Equations for the EMF of Galvanic Cells, 39
3.5 Concentration Dependence of Electrode Potentials, 41
3.6 Special Thermodynamic Features of Electrode Potentials, 46

4. Mass Transfer in Electrolytes 51

4.1 Basic Laws of Ionic Diffusion in Solutions, 51
4.2 Limiting Diffusion Currents in Electrolytes, 53
4.3 Ionic Transport by Migration and Diffusion, 55
4.4 Convective Transport, 60

5. Phase Boundaries (Interfaces) Between Miscible Electrolytes 69

5.1 Types of Interfaces Between Electrolytes, 69
5.2 Potentials Between Similar Electrolytes
(Diffusion Potentials), 71
5.3 Distribution of the Ions Between Dissimilar but
Miscible Electrolytes, 73
5.4 Distribution of Ions in Cells with Membrane, 75
5.5 Galvanic Cells with Transference, 76

6. Polarization of Electrodes 79
6.1 Basic Concepts, 79
6.2 Laws of Activation Polarization, 82
6.3 Diffusional Concentration Polarization, 89
6.4 Superposition of Concentration and Activation Polarization, 93

7. Aqueous Electrolyte Solutions 99

7.1 Electrolytic Dissociation, 99
7.2 Ionic Solvation (Hydration) in Solutions, 106
7.3 Activity of Real Electrolyte Solutions, 112
7.4 Physical Theories of Ion–Ion Interactions, 116

8. Nonaqueous Electrolytes 127

8.1 Different Types of Electrolytes and Their Practical
Utilization, 127
8.2 Nonaqueous Electrolyte Solutions, 128
8.3 Ionically Conducting Melts, 131
8.4 Inorganic Solid Electrolytes, 134
ftoc.qxd 10/29/2005 12:01 PM Page vii

CONTENTS vii

9. Electron Work Functions and Volta Potentials 139

9.1 Surface Potential of a Phase, 139
9.2 Work Functions, 140
9.3 Volta Potentials, 143
9.4 Two Problems in Electrochemistry, 144

10. Structure and Properties of Surface Layers 147

10.1 Electrical Structure of Interphases, 148
10.2 Adsorption Phenomena, 156
10.3 Thermodynamics of Surface Phenomena, 162
10.4 Mercury Electrode Surface, 169
10.5 Platinum Electrode Surface, 172
10.6 Surfaces of Other Electrodes, 178

11. Transient Processes 181

11.1 Evidence for Transient Conditions, 181
11.2 Transient Diffusion to Electrodes of Large Size, 182
11.3 Transient Diffusion to Electrodes of Finite Size, 188

12. Electrochemical Research Techniques 191

12.1 Reference Electrodes, 192
12.2 Voltage and Electrode Potential Measurements
(Potentiometry), 195
12.3 Steady-State Polarization Measurements, 195
12.4 Transient (Pulse) Measurements, 199
12.5 Impedance Measurements, 207

PART II KINETICS OF ELECTROCHEMICAL REACTIONS 217

13. Multistep Electrode Reactions 219

13.1 Intermediate Reaction Steps, 219
13.2 Rate-Determining Step, 220
13.3 Two-Step Electrochemical Reactions, 222
13.4 Complex Electrochemical Reactions, 227
13.5 Reactions with Homogeneous Chemical Steps, 229
13.6 Reactions with Mediators, 233
13.7 Parallel Electrode Reactions, 235
ftoc.qxd 10/29/2005 12:01 PM Page viii

viii CONTENTS

14. Some Aspects of Electrochemical Kinetics 239

14.1 Energy of Activation, 239
14.2 Kinetic Influence of the Electric Double Layer, 245
14.3 Kinetic Influence of Adsorption, 248
14.4 Special Features of Reactions at Semiconductor Electrodes, 250
14.5 Reactions Producing a New Phase, 252

15. Reactions at Nonconsumable Electrodes 261

15.1 Simple Electrochemical Reactions, 261
15.2 Hydrogen Evolution and Ionization, 263
15.3 Reactions Involving Oxygen, 272
15.4 Reactions Involving Chlorine and Other Halogens, 277
15.5 Reactions Involving Organic Substances, 280
15.6 Reactions at High Anodic Potentials, 288
15.7 Reaction of Carbon Dioxide Reduction, 291
15.8 Reaction of Nitrogen Reduction, 294

16. Reactions Involving Metals 297

16.1 Reacting Metal Electrodes, 297
16.2 Anodic Metal Dissolution, 299
16.3 Surface-Layer Formation, 301
16.4 Passivation of Electrodes, 305
16.5 Cathodic Metal Deposition, 310
16.6 Electrochemical Metal Treatments, 315

PART III APPLIED ASPECTS OF ELECTROCHEMISTRY 319

17. Industrial Electrolytic Processes 321

17.1 Chlor-Alkali Electrolysis, 321
17.2 Water Electrolysis, 323
17.3 Electrometallurgy, 323
17.4 Electroplating, 324

18. Electrochemical Reactors 327

18.1 Design Principles, 327
18.2 Separators, 330
18.3 Macrokinetics of Electrochemical Processes
(Systems with Distributed Parameters), 334
ftoc.qxd 10/29/2005 12:01 PM Page ix

CONTENTS ix

18.4 Porous Electrodes, 337

18.5 Three-Dimensional Electrodes, 342

19. Batteries (Electrochemical Power Sources) 343

19.1 Chemical Current-Producing Reactions in Batteries, 344
19.2 Performance of Batteries, 345
19.3 Electrochemical Systems, 349
19.4 Primary Batteries, 350
19.5 Storage Batteries, 353
19.6 Lithium Batteries, 367

20. Fuel Cells 361

20.1 Introduction, 361
20.2 Design Principles of Fuel Cells, 363
20.3 Proton-Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells, 364
20.4 Direct Methanol Fuel Cells, 366

21. Some Electrochemical Devices 369

21.1 Electrochemical Capacitors and Supercapacitors, 369
21.2 Electrochemical Transducers, 375

22. Corrosion of Metals 379

22.1 Various Types of Corrosion, 380
22.2 Mechanisms of Corrosion Processes, 381
22.3 Corrosion Protection, 384

23. Electrochemical Methods of Analysis 387

23.1 Conductometry, 388
23.2 Coulometry, 388
23.3 Amperometry, 389
23.4 Polarography, 390
23.5 Transient Voltammetric Techniques, 394
23.6 Potentiometry, 398

24. Electrochemistry and the Environment 405

Alexander Skundin (Sections 24.1 to 24.4) and Alvin J. Salkind
(Section 24.5)
24.1 Chemical and Electrochemical Processes, 405
24.2 Monitoring the Environment, 406
24.3 Purification Procedures (Elimination of Pollutants), 408
ftoc.qxd 10/29/2005 12:01 PM Page x

x CONTENTS

24.4 Medical Applications of Electrochemistry, 411

24.5 Electrochemical Aspects of Bone Remodeling and
Fracture Repair, 413

PART IV SELECTED TOPICS IN ELECTROCHEMISTRY 417

25. Solid-State Electrochemistry 419

Ulrich Stimming and Hengyong Tu (Part A)
Part A. Solid Electrolytes, 419
25.1 Defects in Solids, 419
25.2 Solid Ion Conductors, 425
25.3 Solid Mixed Ionic–Electronic Conductors, 436
25.4 Electrochemical Reactions at Interfaces with Solid
Electrolytes, 438
Part B. Solid-State Reactions, 441
25.5 Heterogeneous Solid-State Reactions, 441
25.6 Electrochemical Intercalation, 443

26. Conductive Polymers 449

Klaus Müller
26.1 Active Polymers, 449
26.2 Polymers with Ionic Functions, 450
26.3 Polymers with Electronic Functions, 457

27. Physical Methods for Investigation of Electrode Surfaces 467

James McBreen
27.1 Topics of Investigation, 468
27.2 X-Ray Methods, 470
27.3 Scanning Probe Methods, 484
27.4 Electrochemical Quartz Crystal Microbalance, 487
27.5 Optical Spectroscopy, 491
27.6 Infrared Spectroscopy, 503
27.7 Electrochemical NMR, 506
27.8 Ex Situ Methods, 507
27.9 The Future of Physical Methods in Electrochemistry, 516

28. Electrocatalysis 521

28.1 Introduction, 521
28.2 Electrocatalysis and Adsorption Effects, 523
ftoc.qxd 10/29/2005 12:01 PM Page xi

CONTENTS xi

28.3 Metal Electrodes: Influence of the Nature of the Metal, 524

28.4 Metal Electrodes: Influence of Surface State and Structure, 530
28.5 Highly Disperse Metal Catalysts, 535
28.6 Binary and Multicomponent Metal Catalysts, 539
28.7 Nonmetallic Catalysts, 542
28.8 Stability of Electrocatalysts, 550
28.9 Other Aspects of Electrocatalysis, 551
28.10 Discussion, 552

29. Photoelectrochemistry 557

29.1 Energy Levels of Electrons, 558
29.2 Electron Photoemission into Solutions, 562
29.3 Photoexcitation of Semiconductor Electrodes, 564
29.4 Photoexcitation of Reacting Species, 570

30. Bioelectrochemistry 573

30.1 Transmission of the Nervous Impulse, 575
30.2 Bioenergetics, 584
30.3 Electrochemical Methods in Biology and Medicine, 589

31. Electrokinetic Processes 595

31.1 Electrokinetic Potential, 597
31.2 Basic Equations of Electrokinetic Processes, 600
31.3 Practical Use of Electrokinetic Processes, 605

32. Interfaces Between Two Immiscible Electrolyte Solutions 607

Zdeněk Samec
32.1 Equilibrium Galvani Potential Difference, 608
32.2 Ideally Polarizable ITIES, 612
32.3 Polarization Measurements, 612
32.4 Structure of ITIES, 614
32.5 Charge-Transfer Rate, 616
32.6 Applications, 618

33. Various Electrochemical Phenomena 621

Yurij Tolmachev (Section 33.1) and Leonid Kanevsky
(Section 33.2)
33.1 Electrochromism, 621
33.2 Electrochemical Noise, 626
ftoc.qxd 10/29/2005 12:01 PM Page xii

xii CONTENTS

33.3 Electrochemical Properties of High-Temperature

Superconductors, 630
33.4 Electrochemical “Cold Fusion”, 632

34. Main Concepts of Elementary Reaction Act Theory 637

Alexander Kuznetsov
34.1 Outer-Sphere Electron Transfer Reactions in the Bulk Solution, 638
34.2 Adiabatic and Nonadiabatic Reactions, 643
34.3 Electrochemical Electron Transfer, 645
34.4 Electrochemical Adiabaticity Parameter. Medium Dynamics
vs. Static Distribution, 650
34.5 Adiabatic Electrochemical Electron Transfer Reactions, 652
34.6 Electric Double-Layer Effects on the Elementary Act
of Electron Transfer, 653
34.7 Bond-Breaking Electron Transfer, 655
34.8 Reorganization Energy of the Medium and the
Frequency Factor, 657
34.9 Electrochemical Proton Transfer, 658

35. Computer Simulation in Electrochemistry 661

Ezequiel Leiva
35.1 Introduction, 661
35.2 Molecular(Atom) Dynamics, 662
35.3 Monte Carlo Methods, 668

36. Nanoelectrochemistry 679

Ezequiel Leiva
36.1 Introduction, 679
36.2 Probe-Induced Electrochemical Nanostructuring
of Metallic Surfaces, 680
36.3 Defect Nanostructuring, 681
36.4 Tip-Induced Local Metal Deposition, 684
36.5 Localized Electrochemical Nucleation and Growth, 686
36.6 Electronic Contact Nanostructuring, 688
36.7 Nanostructuring by Scanning Electrochemical Microscopy, 689

37. Development of Electrochemistry 693

37.1 First Electrochemical Power Sources, 693
37.2 Development of a Large-Scale Electrochemical Industry, 696
37.3 Fuel Cells and Lithium Batteries, 699
ftoc.qxd 10/29/2005 12:01 PM Page xiii

CONTENTS xiii

Appendix A: Derivation of the Main Equation of

Debye–Hückel Theory 701
Appendix B: Derivation of the Main Equation of
Gouy–Chapman Theory 705

General Bibliography 709

Author Index 711

Subject Index 715

fbetw.qxd 10/29/2005 12:04 PM Page xv

CONTRIBUTORS

PROF. VLADIMIR S. BAGOTSKY (retired from the A. N. Frumkin Institute

of Physical Chemistry and Electrochemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences,
Leninskij Prospekt 31, 119071 Moscow, Russia), Mountain View, CA 94043,
E-mail: [email protected]—main author
DR. LEONID S. KANEVSKY, A. N. Frumkin Institute of Physical Chemistry and
Electrochemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences, Leninskij Prospekt 31, 119071
Moscow, Russia, E-mail: c/o [email protected]—Section 33.2
PROF. ALEXANDER M. KUZNETSOV, A. N. Frumkin Institute of Physical Chemistry
and Electrochemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences, Leninskij Prospekt 31,
119071 Moscow, Russia, E-mail: [email protected]—Chapter 34
PROF. EZEQUIEL P. M. LEIVA, INFIQC-Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, Universidad
Nacional de Córdoba, 5000 Córdoba, Argentina, E-mail: [email protected].
edu.ar—Chapters 35 and 36
DR. JAMES MCBREEN, Brookhaven National Laboratory, Material Sciences
Department, P.O. Box 5000, Upton, NY 11973-5000, E-mail: jmcbreen@
bnl.gov—Chapter 27
DR. KLAUS MÜLLER (retired from Battelle, Geneva, Switzerland), D-85560
Ebersberg, Germany, E-mail: [email protected]—Chapter 25
PROF. ALVIN J. SALKIND, Bioengineering Division, University of Medicine and
Dentistry of New Jersey, Piscataway, NJ 08854-3635, E-mail: Alvin.
[email protected]—Section 24.5
PROF. ZDENE
K SAMEC, J. Heyrovský Institute of Physical Chemistry, Academy of
Sciences of the Czech Republik, CZ-182 23 Prague, Czech Republic, E-mail:
[email protected]—Chapter 32
DR. ALEXANDER M. SKUNDIN, A. N. Frumkin Institute of Physical Chemistry and
Electrochemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences, Leninskij Prospekt 31, 119071
Moscow, Russia, E-mail: [email protected]—Sections 24.1 to 24.4
PROF. ULRICH STIMMING, Physik-Department E-19, Technische Universität
München, D-85748 Garching, Germany, E-mail: [email protected]—Chapter
26, Part A

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