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Everyday Resistance
French Activism
in the 21st Century
Edited by
Bruno Frère
Marc Jacquemain
Everyday Resistance
 Bruno Frère • Marc Jacquemain
Editors

Everyday Resistance
French Activism in the 21st Century
Editors
Bruno Frère Marc Jacquemain
FNRS, Faculty of Social Sciences Faculty of Social Sciences
University of Liège University of Liège
Liège, Belgium Liège, Belgium

Based on a translation from the French language edition:

Résister au quotidien ? by Bruno Frère and Marc Jacquemain
Copyright © PRESSES DE LA FONDATION NATIONALE DES SCIENCES
POLITIQUES 2013
All Rights Reserved.
Translation by Josh Booth.

ISBN 978-3-030-18986-0    ISBN 978-3-030-18987-7 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-18987-7

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer
Nature Switzerland AG 2020
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the
Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of
translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on
microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval,
electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now
known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are
exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information
in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the
publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to
the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The
publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and
institutional affiliations.

This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature
Switzerland AG.
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
 Contents

1 Introduction: Let a Thousand Flowers Bloom?  1

Marc Jacquemain and Bruno Frère

2 Undocumented Families and Political Communities:

Parents Fighting Deportations 21
Damien de Blic and Claudette Lafaye

3 From Indicting the Law to Conquering Rights: A Case-­

Study of Gay Movements in Switzerland, Spain
and Belgium 45
Marta Roca i Escoda

4 Fighting for Poor People’s Rights in the French Welfare

State 75
Frédéric Viguier

5 The Plural Logics of Anti-Capitalist Economic

Movements 97
Éric Dacheux

6 The Free Software Community: A Contemporary Space

for Reconfiguring Struggles?117
Gaël Depoorter

v
vi CONTENTS

7 Associations for the Preservation of Small-­Scale Farming

and Related Organisations145
Fabrice Ripoll

8 Ordinary Resistance to Masculine Domination in a Civil

Disobedience Movement175
Manuel Cervera-Marzal and Bruno Frère

9 A Zone to Defend: The Utopian Territorial Experiment

of Notre Dame Des Landes205
Sylvaine Bulle

10 “Politics Without Politics”: Affordances and Limitations

of the Solidarity Economy’s Libertarian Socialist
Grammar229
Bruno Frère

11 Is the “New Activism” Really New?263

Lilian Mathieu

12 Conclusion281
Bruno Frère and Marc Jacquemain

Index299
 Notes on Contributors

Sylvaine Bulle is Professor of Sociology at the National School of Paris

Val de Seine. She is a member of Cresppa-LabTop (Centre de Recherche
de sociologie politique de Paris, Laboratoire Théorie du Politique), part
of the University of Paris 8 and Paris 10.
Manuel Cervera-Marzal has a PhD in political science. He is currently a
postdoctoral researcher at Aix-Marseille Université (DICE, UMR 7318,
LabexMed) and at the FNRS (University of Liège).
Éric Dacheux is Professor of Information and Communication Sciences
at Université Clermont Auvergne (UCA) (Clermont Fd) where he founded
the research group “Communication and Solidarity” (EA 4647). He is
a member of the management committee of RIUESS (Interuniversity
Network of Social and Solidarity Economy Researchers) and supervises
doctoral theses on communication problems encountered by ESS actors.
Damien de Blic is Associate Professor in Political Science at University of
Paris 8 (Saint-Denis) and is affiliated to the Center for Sociological and
Political Research in Paris (CRESPPA-LabTop).
Gaël Depoorter has a PhD in sociology, and is a researcher at CURAPP-­
ESS (UMR 7319) at Picardie Jules-Verne University (Amiens, France).
He is associated with GERiiCO at the University of Lille (France) where
he teaches in the Department of Information and Communication.

vii
viii NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS

Bruno Frère is FNRS senior research associate and Professor at the

University of Liège, Belgium, and at Paris I Pantheon Sorbonne, France.
He is the author or editor of, among other works, Epistémologie de la
Sociologie (with Marc Jacquemain, 2008), Le Nouvel Esprit Solidaire
(2009), Résister au Quotidien (with Marc Jacquemain, 2013), Le Tournant
de la Théorie Critique (2015) and Repenser l’émancipation (to be pub-
lished in 2020, with Jean-Louis Laville).
Marc Jacquemain is Professor of Sociology at the University of Liège,
Belgium. He is the author of La raison névrotique (2002) and Le sens du
juste (2005). He is co-editor of, among others, Epistémologie de la sociolo-
gie (with Bruno Frère, 2008), Résister au Quotidien (with Bruno Frère,
2013) and Engagements actuels, actualité des engagements (with Pascal
Delwit, 2010).
Claudette Lafaye is Associate Professor in Sociology at University of
Paris 8 (Saint-Denis), and is affiliated to the Laboratoire Architecture Ville
Urbanisme Environnement (LAVUE).
Lilian Mathieu is a sociologist. He is senior researcher in the CNRS
(National Center for Scientific Research) and a member of the Centre
Max Weber in the Ecole Normale Supérieure Lyon, France.
Fabrice Ripoll received his PhD in social geography from the University
of Caen (France) in 2005. He is Maître de conférences (associate profes-
sor) of social geography at the Paris-Est Créteil Val-de-Marne University
(France) and at the Lab’URBA. He just obtained accreditation to super-
vise (doctoral) research (HDR).
Marta Roca i Escoda is a sociologist, and lecturer at the Institute for
Gender Studies of the University of Lausanne. After graduating in sociol-
ogy at the Autonomous University of Barcelona, she wrote her PhD dis-
sertation in sociology at the University of Geneva, entitled “Mise en jeu et
mise en cause du droit dans le processus de reconnaissance des couples
homosexuels”. She is also an associate researcher at the Research Group
on Public Action (Free University of Brussels).
Frédéric Viguier is a sociologist and clinical associate professor at
the Institute of French Studies, New York University. His research inter-
ests focus on inequalities in France and the Francophone world, how they
are perceived and represented, and how they are addressed by social poli-
cies and policies of educational democratization.
 CHAPTER 1

Introduction: Let a Thousand

Flowers Bloom?

Marc Jacquemain and Bruno Frère

The societies of Western Europe—“Old Europe”, as George W. Bush’s

Secretary of Defence, Donald Rumsfeld, called it—have lived for three full
decades through what one might call a “crisis of social conflict”. That
doesn’t necessarily mean that the level of conflict has become lower—even
if the hypothesis seems true for a fraction of this period—but rather that
the conflict has become less structured and so less easy to grasp. In a
recent work on new critical thought, sociologist Razmig Keucheyan
(2014: 4) summarises the situation in a formula we can easily agree with:
“Today’s world resembles the one in which classical Marxism emerged. In
other respects, it is significantly different—above all, no doubt, in the
absence of a clearly identified ‘subject of emancipation’”.
In both its Marxist and social-democratic tendencies, the historic
workers’ movement drew on a considerable symbolic resource: a teleology
in which the proletariat, a special actor, had a “natural” calling to the

M. Jacquemain
Faculty of Social Sciences, University of Liège, Liège, Belgium
e-mail: [email protected]
B. Frère (*)
FNRS, Faculty of Social Sciences, University of Liège, Liège, Belgium
e-mail: [email protected]

© The Author(s) 2020 1

B. Frère, M. Jacquemain (eds.), Everyday Resistance,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-18987-7_1
2 M. JACQUEMAIN AND B. FRÈRE

universal. Its emancipation was supposed to emancipate the whole of

humanity, and the question of what form the resultant classless society
would take could be left to future generations. To be sure, this teleology
posed significant problems. What should be done, for example, about the
desire for national emancipation, about the rejection of colonialism and
sexism? But it nonetheless provided a compass, a “red thread” which
allowed all forms of resistance to be linked at least on the level of the
imagined. This vision of the world has now lost its relevance because capi-
talism’s “displacements” have “defeated” the historic actor with universal
calling by denying it a clearly identifiable adversary (Boltanski and
Chiapello 2005 [1999]), leaving only a landscape strewn with injustices
that are deeply felt but difficult to identify and to denounce, and still
more difficult to link together. Institutions evade responsibility for and
refuse to describe the multiple injustices whose victims are the weak
(Boltanski 2011 [2009]). The weak then experience an “indignation”
without a target; they might even feel culpable if they accept that their lot
is inscribed in the nature of things, or in the world itself, to use Luc
Boltanski’s terminology again (2011 [2009]). Responsible for their own
fortune, they only get what they deserve.
But the injustices persist. Even when they become difficult to theorise,
even if reality tends to conceal itself, all the indicators point towards their
having worsened over the last three decades. During that time, the atten-
tion of political scientists and sociologists has been drawn increasingly to
situated and often monothematic practical demonstrations of resistance to
injustice. These forms of resistance were not all born yesterday, as Lilian
Mathieu and Bruno Frère observe in their chapters. Some of them have
even been around for several decades. But they all benefit from increased
visibility now that the “tide” of totalising and politicised social critique,
that of the historic workers’ movement, has been partially taken out of
circulation.
The social-scientific literature of the last 15 years has often described
these practical forms of resistance in terms of a transformation of engage-
ment (Ion et al. 2005; Jacquemain and Delwit 2010; Vassallo 2010; Tilly
and Wood 2013). The “total activism” that developed within the tradi-
tional workers’ movement was said to have been replaced by a “distanced”
engagement: activists now fought for a specific cause and for a given time;
they refused to “sacrifice themselves” for the cause; selfish and altruistic
motivations coexisted. This last point is, without doubt, one of the most
controversial: in the classical conception of commitment as defended, for
 1 INTRODUCTION: LET A THOUSAND FLOWERS BLOOM? 3

example, by Hirschman (1982), invoking personal, selfish, reasons for

commitment destroyed the value of even public engagement.1
But we cannot even be sure that these characteristics of contemporary
modes of activism are new (Kriesi 1995) or not (Pichardo 1997)—an old
question that is still actively debated (Peterson et al. 2015). There is no
doubt that, as Snow and Soule remind us, there are differences between,
for example, the cultural struggles of LGBTQ+ and ecological
movements—which want to secure procedural rights and protect life-
styles—and the “older movements” (trade unions, etc.)—which are ori-
ented towards labour and correcting distributional inequities (2010: 236).
This seems to be particularly true in the case of France, where some have
no hesitation in talking about “new citizenship” or “new associativeness”
in the public sphere—which differs dramatically from formalised struc-
tures such as parties and trade unions (Waters 2003: 147, 21). And this
kind of distinction even inspires the thoughts of critical philosophers
(Fraser and Honneth 2003). On the other hand, as Lilian Mathieu sug-
gests, some claimed novelties may consist more in an effect of “belief”, in
a displacement of the sociological gaze, than in a transformation of reality.
Besides, one can easily imagine that it is not just the social sciences that are
responsible for this displacement—that the activists themselves engage in
storytelling that foregrounds those forms of activism that are socially val-
ued at a given point in time. Thus, the existential difficulties linked to
activist engagement certainly afflicted the workers’ movement of the
1920s, just as they afflicted the activist movements of the 1960s, as auto-
biographical memoirs attest. But today they are without a doubt easier to
integrate explicitly into the canonical account of activist experience.
This is why the texts assembled here do not seek to address this ques-
tion of novelty. They present a sample of experiences all of which provide
evidence of forms of collective resistance to injustice in our cognitive2
(Moulier-Boutang 2011) and connectionist (Boltanski and Chiapello
2005 [1999]) capitalist societies. What these texts have in common is that
they all—to different degrees—privilege a pragmatic approach: they set
out to describe this resistance through actors’ concrete practices, recon-
structing the rules that these actors set themselves in order to decide on
the legitimacy of their own engagement. For pragmatic sociology, the
sociologist cannot claim to know the reasons for actors’ concrete practice
better than the actors themselves—and this is because the sociologist does
not necessarily have access to a privileged viewpoint. This work thus sees
itself as very different from a sociology that “unveils”, whose ambition is
4 M. JACQUEMAIN AND B. FRÈRE

to free hidden reality from domination so as to better combat it (Boltanski

and Thévenot [1991] 2006; Frère and Laville forthcoming; Frère and
Jaster 2018). It also distances itself from a sociology that is too
“generalising”—a sociology that aims to sketch a universal model of activ-
ism today. Yet, the chapters collected here are united by a common
hypothesis: that committing to a cause implies a fundamental moral ability
to be outraged by injustice. But this ability can be deployed at very differ-
ent levels of generality. It is through the empirical analysis of practices and
justificatory discourses that we must uncover the logic of each of these
forms of resistance—the moral grammar of an indignation that although
effective may struggle, even refuse, to “rise to generality”, to acquire a
theoretical justification (Boltanski [2009] 2011).
The examples taken up in this book constitute a sample of practices
because they by no means include all instances of resistance to contempo-
rary injustice. Common to all of them is their focus on France or, more
accurately, the French-speaking world, following in the footsteps of exist-
ing well-known studies (Cerny 1982; Duyvendack 1995). Why focus on
France? Probably for the reasons highlighted by Waters (2003: 2):

France provides a particularly rich and fascinating setting in which to observe

social movements. This is after all a nation defined historically by mass popu-
lar uprising, whose values, principles and ideals have been fashioned by a
deep-seated revolutionary tradition. French culture was created through
dissent, through constant challenges to the status quo. From the Revolution
of 1789 and the Paris Commune of 1871 to the more recent events of May
1968 or the ‘big strikes’ of 1995, the course of French history has been
punctuated by moments of profound social and political upheaval. More
than with any other European country, conflict lies at the heart of French
political life and is woven into the very fabric of society, symbolising for
many the ideals of popular resistance, democratic change and the struggle
for justice.3

On the wide spectrum of social movements that can be classified as

belonging to the European “new left”—which demand global justice
while pointing to an almost stunning diversity of candidates for emancipa-
tion (Flesher Fominaya and Cox 2013)—those who were at the origin of
the alter-globalist movement in the 1990s and 2000s are today well known
and have captured the attention of all the specialists (Sommier and Fillieule
2013: 48). Thus, we no longer focus on droits devant or AC! (who fought
for the rights of the unemployed), ATTAC (the Association for the
Taxation of Financial Transactions) or José Bové’s confédération paysanne,
 1 INTRODUCTION: LET A THOUSAND FLOWERS BLOOM? 5

who were among the era’s central actors (Morena 2013). Even if the alter-­
globalist tendency is no longer there to unify the movement, the fact
remains that in its margins—or a short time after its decline—forms of
struggle were born that are less well known and have less media presence.
But it is probably they who are aiming to keep the spirit of this “new left”
alive today. And it is them who we focus on in this collection.
Remaining within this geographical frame, which has no pretensions
towards universality, the examples described here clearly show both the
diversity of contemporary forms of left-wing engagement in France and
their vitality at very different scales. All these forms of engagement are
unfolding at a conjuncture which could be described, from a more macro-
sociological point of view, as a phase of “resilience”: even if it has really
become more difficult to think about, and a fortiori to organise, social
contestation during the last 30 years, the “black hole” of the 1980s—dur-
ing which the discourse of “triumphal” capitalism convinced even (and
sometimes primarily) those who lost most from it of its truth—has none-
theless come to a close.4
Even if the books’ chapters do not explicitly endorse this description of
the present, most of their authors seem to see in it a plausible outline of
the global context in which current forms of engagement are situated. With
the fundamental resource of a totalising narrative schema no longer at
their disposal, it is logical that these instances of resistance should do two
things: first, that they should look to concrete situations for resources; but
second, that they should once more pose themselves—but with noticeably
greater difficulty than in the past—the question of the “rise to general-
ity”5—the question of how to move towards a political demand for social
transformation.
Though the forms of resistance presented here may be diverse in terms
of their focus and their mode of organisation, it is nonetheless possible to
make connections that point towards potentially generalisable logics. By
beginning with these experiments studied in their particularity, it is possi-
ble to pose questions that concern all of them. Three points, in particular,
are worth mentioning, all of which seem even more striking than during
the zenith of anti-globalisation.
In the absence of an immediately available “horizon of expectations”,
how can indignation express itself and what role do the pressures of neces-
sity play? How can resistance arise from the brute experience of injustice
and to what extent does this experience constrain the form in which resis-
tance expresses itself?
6 M. JACQUEMAIN AND B. FRÈRE

How do these instances of resistance position themselves in relation to

institutions and in particular to the state? Is it a question of opposing the
established authorities, of adapting to them, of enrolling them as allies, or
some of all these things simultaneously? How can these problems be
resolved in the face of a state whose boundaries have become increas-
ingly elusive?
What resources can these forms of resistance mobilise in a period that
appears hostile to them? Are there some themes that lend themselves bet-
ter than others to transforming local resistance into global critique?

The Pressures of Necessity

The impact of necessity—and even of urgency—is a topic common to
most of the engagements described here. In their study of the Réseau
Éducation Sans Frontières (RESF, the Education Without Borders
Network), Claudette Lafaye and Damien de Blic (Chap. 2) show how
parents and teachers discover that the threat of expulsion has suddenly
disrupted the “everyday and unremarkable” worlds of students and their
parents. Here, moral indignation reaches its maximum; this moral register
is a powerful “boost” to a highly committed type of activism that consists
of regular support and presence. In the case of the RESF, it is easy to
imagine that “there is no room for asking questions”: a strong activist
response is almost inevitable because it is difficult to “pass by” something
that happens to someone who—because they belong to a “community”
(whether centred around the neighbourhood or schools)—is already com-
pletely endowed with the attributes of an individual. The example of the
RESF brings this logic of necessity—which involves a commitment that
almost “goes without saying”—into sharp focus. In this case, actors stick
closely to moral indignation and, if they move away from this indignation
(towards the more abstract register of the civic city, which questions the
legitimacy of current immigration policy), the activist response loses its
legitimacy. This allows the RESF’s activism to be locally effective; at this
scale, weak generalisation allows allies to be enrolled more easily (in par-
ticular civil servants, who would be much more reticent if confronted with
more militant language). But its critical potential is thereby diminished.
Though the RESF reveals the pressure of necessity particularly clearly,
this pressure is present in many other cases. The transformation of homo-
sexual activism under the pressure of the emergence of AIDS, described by
Marta Roca i Escoda (Chap. 3), provides a paradigmatic example of this.
 1 INTRODUCTION: LET A THOUSAND FLOWERS BLOOM? 7

Urgency forced homosexual associations to totally reorient themselves,

partly by re-centring themselves around serving the community (leaving to
one side the more radical critique of normalising society), and partly by
committing to a policy of active collaboration with the state to promote
information, support and prevention. While the epidemic took a heavy toll
on the homosexual community, this dramatic moment was also paradoxi-
cally the occasion of a real victory. Every piece of research conducted dur-
ing the last 30 years, in Europe as well as in the United States, has shown
the progressive “social normalisation” of homosexuality: homophobia has
of course not disappeared but it has ceased to be the dominant social norm.
In what seemed like a struggle for its survival, the homosexual commu-
nity—particularly in France and North America—gained a form of recogni-
tion, notably thanks to the construction of a “counter-expertise” which
impressed even the medical world (Collins and Pinch 2001). Although
driven by the pressure of the most extreme necessity, homosexual activism
thus achieved a particularly effective “rise to generality” by expanding the
frontiers of “common humanity”: in certain countries, in less than a life-
time, the state’s engagement with homosexuality transitioned from moral-
ising penalisation to the promotion of a vigorous anti-­discrimination policy.6
The solidarity economy, addressed by Éric Dacheux and then Bruno
Frère (Chaps. 5 and 10), draws on the same idea of a fight for survival.
What neither André Gorz (2001: 205–214) nor Holloway (2010: 69–70)
seem to recognise when they criticise the solidarity economy is that it has
not arisen from the theories of authors who write about it but has emerged
from necessity pure and simple. The solidarity economy has emerged
because without it living conditions would seriously deteriorate. This
observation holds as much for self-managed cooperatives in Argentina as
it does for some local exchange services in France, as well as citizen bank-
ing schemes that have developed throughout the world. Perhaps it is true
that, as Marx’s Capital says, “the realm of freedom really begins only
when labour determined by necessity and external expediency ends. It lies
by its very nature beyond the sphere of material production proper” (Marx
1981 [1867]: 958–959). The realm of freedom really begins when the
rule of immediate physical needs comes to an end. But here and now these
needs are visible, and there is no other option but to fulfil them and to
take every step possible to “get by”.
These texts clearly show how activist engagement arises or transforms
itself under the impact of necessity: what can appear heroic in ordinary
contexts can become ordinary in heroic contexts.7 But at a more “banal”
8 M. JACQUEMAIN AND B. FRÈRE

level, necessity is omnipresent as a cause of engagement: it is, again, the

contact with profound poverty that allows Agir Tous pour la Dignité
(ATD) Quart Monde (All Act for Dignity Fourth World), studied by
Frédéric Viguier (Chap. 4), to demand that its members engage in a form
of activism that verges on asceticism. As Fabrice Ripoll explains (Chap. 7),
repeated food security crises provided the Associations pour le Maintain
de l’Agriculture Paysanne (AMAPs, Associations for the Protection of
Paysan Agriculture) with the social need that their survival depends on.
And it was the desire to take control of their own professional and techni-
cal environment that led programmers to establish the free software com-
munity, according to Gaël Depoorter (Chap. 6). All these movements’
critiques vary in their levels of reflexivity and radicalism; but remaining in
touch with a form of immediately recognisable “need” seems to be a cen-
tral element of the birth and longevity of the engagement they involve.
Certain “vital” experiences retain their ability to fuel indignation, even if
the transition from indignation to critique (Boltanski and Chiapello 2005
[1999]) has become more fragile for the reasons outlined above. To the
question of knowing “how is one to continue believing in the feasibility of
socialism, when the facts have brutally and repeatedly invalidated the
idea?” (Keucheyan 2014: 30), it becomes possible to respond: resistance is
possible without reaching the threshold of belief. For that reason this resis-
tance remains fragile, whether it is supported by different “horizons of
expectations” or unsupported by any such horizon. So it is difficult to
make it permanent. But the pressure of necessity constantly reactivates it.

An Ambiguous Relationship to the State

In the various types of engagement we have before us, the relation to the
state (envisaged in its broadest sense as a public authority) is ambiguous,
to say the least. The state is by turns an adversary and a tutelary power,
depending on the circumstances, and sometimes both at the same time.
The example of the homosexual movement is, without doubt, the most
revealing in this regard. Immediately following the Second World War, the
state was in some sense “out of the picture”, doubtless because the idea of
homosexuality’s social normalisation seemed relatively inaccessible. The
movements that emerged consequently appeared more inward-looking;
they were less activist groups than “circles” of sociability within a com-
munity that saw itself as discreet. The conjuncture of the 1970s rendered
the prospect of normalisation more concrete. At this point, the most
 1 INTRODUCTION: LET A THOUSAND FLOWERS BLOOM? 9

conservative states (such as Francoist Spain) appeared as clear adversaries

through their preservation, and even their strengthening, of repressive
laws that were losing support among the general population. Finally, at
the start of the 1980s, AIDS came along and practically inverted the prob-
lematic, turning the homosexual movements into allies of a state pressured
into acting against the epidemic in a manner that was preventative as well
as curative. If, as seems to be the case, this (inevitable) alliance ended up
benefiting the homosexual movement—at the very least by drawing atten-
tion to the issue of homosexuality’s legal normalisation—this has not nec-
essarily been the case for other forms of resistance.
Thus, anti-poverty movements such as ATD Fourth World are described
by Frédéric Viguier as “an instrument for controlling the working classes”;
he describes the “cause of the poor” as constituting a space “much less
external to the state than it is normally represented as being”. The ques-
tion of who benefits from an alliance of this kind is much more problem-
atic here. By declaring that the transformation required depends on “work
on the self by the poor”, movements like ATD propagate what might in a
very general sense be called “the dominant ideology” of network capital-
ism, which extends demands for individual responsibility and “limitless
activation” even to its outsiders. The pressure of necessity fuels resistance
but, at the same time, it integrates this resistance into a type of global
social policy that sustains poverty. This is why, citing Bourdieu, Frédéric
Viguier refers to “the left hand of the state”, which may try to offer an
ultimate “safety net” but which does so by favouring aid over insurance,
thus relieving capitalism of any responsibility for the least productive part
of the workforce.
The relation to the state is therefore very problematic. For most activist
associations, no matter what their cause, it would be untenable to refuse
to collaborate with the authorities—but forming such an alliance comes at
a heavy cost because it hampers the development of critical thought. In
particular, these associations tend to block “civic” tests8 centred on the
model of making political demands in the public sphere, as demonstrated
by their hostility to the idea of occupying the banks of the Canal Saint-­
Martin in Paris.
This refusal to “rise to political generality” is common to various forms
of resistance, including those that confront the power of the state head-
­on: it is seen in both the solidarity economy and the RESF, whose activists
dismiss any critical reflection on immigration policy as this would in some
sense “pollute” their existential commitment to serve real flesh-and-blood
10 M. JACQUEMAIN AND B. FRÈRE

people. This raises the risk of a “Sisyphean effect”, whereby any partial
victories are achieved only at the price of refusing to interrogate sys-
temic effects.
This dilemma is not new. The entire history of the 20th century work-
ers’ movement can be read along the same lines: that of the dialectic
between the mobilising and demobilising effects of partial victories. The
workers’ movement at least proposed a theorisation of the state’s role.9
But this theorisation has become difficult today, while the state itself has
become evanescent: one the one hand, it ceaselessly reaffirms itself through
symbols and its repressive authority,10 but on the other, it constantly weak-
ens the distinction between the public and the private, borrowing its man-
agerial forms of control from capitalism. On the one hand, it reminds
actors of their “sovereignty”, while on the other, it partly incorporates
these social actors to make them into its subcontractors: the state thus
becomes, according to Zaki Laïdi’s neat formulation (2007), a “fractal
state” that must negotiate with parts of itself.
What results is really a “game with the rules” (Boltanski 2011 [2009]):
actors find themselves in a system full of blurred lines where the state
appears as much as an ally as it does as an adversary, and sometimes, as
mentioned before, both at the same time, depending on the circum-
stances. Perhaps this situation is impossible to clarify today in France given
the plasticity of institutions, which are both increasingly fragile and quick
to claim their “sovereign power” over the weakest actors. But this lack of
clarification appears, on the whole, as a weakness, liable to lead activist
engagements to a kind of recurrent impotence.11 Like Sisyphus pushing
his boulder, critique, in this case, must always be begun again.

A Capacity for Subversion?

Contrary to the engagements we have just been talking about (deporta-
tions, poverty, etc.), which have struggled to “rise to generality”, in other
cases a similar phenomenon has come to light that gives more reason for
optimism: forms of engagement that are not a priori anti-capitalist, even
behaviours that are not experienced a priori as forms of activist engage-
ment, can produce what we will call “non-intentional critical effects”.
We have in mind, first, the AMAPs analysed by Fabrice Ripoll. As his
chapter clearly shows, their success is partly due to the plurality of registers
of commitment they have mobilised. One can join an AMAP either
because of solidarity with rural communities or because of a more general
 1 INTRODUCTION: LET A THOUSAND FLOWERS BLOOM? 11

desire for an environmentally-friendly form of production. But also

because of motivations that are more easily accessible to “ordinary peo-
ple”, that is, a desire to eat food that conforms to one’s own dietary pref-
erences, whether this desire is generated by fear of certain foods
“contaminated” by chemicals (fertiliser and other pesticides), or by a taste
for certain flavours. “Moral and political” commitment can thus be mini-
mal, to begin with. This plurality of registers can of course serve to weaken
associations (e.g. when a minority of “activists” carry out collective tasks
for a majority of “consumers”). But it is also a strength that allows people
with commitments that are very different in nature and intensity to come
together. The “consumer” who primarily acts according to a “selfish”
logic (for their health or to save money) nonetheless provides support for
the group by increasing its critical mass. Thus, one can commit oneself
without really claiming to perform an act of commitment in the traditional
sense. The logic of the AMAPs acts as a “transmission mechanism”
between the initial investment and the collective result.
The same mechanism is at work, in an even more explicit way, in the
“free software community” analysed by Gaël Depoorter. The “founding
narrative” of Richard Stallman (Stallman and Williams 2010) appeals to an
“existential experience of frustration”: seeing yourself excluded from proj-
ects to which you yourself have contributed. The justification for free soft-
ware may rest on a critique of capitalism (the rejection of the private
appropriation of collective intellectual work), but this justification does
not a priori presuppose a higher level of critical engagement. It rests on
“an improbable hybrid of an academic ethos and primitive communism”
and above all involves itself in practical activity: the resolution of problems
and the sharing of knowledge. Christophe Lejeune (2009) has clearly
shown how “the spirit of engagement” among digital communities
invokes mutual technical support and not “abstract” critical distance with
regard to the internet’s commercialisation. This spirit is translated by the
imperative “Do it yourself!” It is particularly well illustrated by the use of
the term troll, a (dis)qualifier used to ridicule disputes judged nonessential
(not linked to the resolution of problems) in dedicated forums. On read-
ing these interactions, any taste for polemic—which is very common in
certain spheres of critical engagement—must be pushed aside in favour of
a “virtuous practical register pacified by a weaker level of reflexivity”.
By concretising this practical register, “viral” tools such as the GNU
General Public License enable these communities to mobilise resistance
even more robustly through the “transmission mechanism” effect
12 M. JACQUEMAIN AND B. FRÈRE

mentioned above in relation to the AMAPs: “All software using all or part
of a development protected by this licence must de facto apply its rules,
thus enabling the construction and permanence of an alternative praxis”.
Free software communities are at the heart of what Yann Moulier-­
Boutang (2011) calls the “cognitive” productive mechanism of capitalism.
Without appearing to affect this mechanism, free software is thus a practice
with “high subversive potential” due to the very nature of its object. Moulier-
Boutang summarises the problem very simply:

At the very moment when the market seems to have consolidated its posi-
tion, historically eliminating socialism as an alternative to the production of
material goods outside the market, the quantity of goods, of information
and of knowledge which present all the characteristics of collective goods
becomes so significant that the basic justification of private appropriation
becomes increasingly acrobatic and largely inoperative.

This analysis seems to echo the Marxist idea that the development of the
“collective intellectual worker” will end up rendering the relations of capi-
talist production suboptimal.
Of course, this development is in no way necessary. Capitalism has amply
demonstrated its ability to incorporate critique and turn its weaknesses into
instruments of its own transformation (Boltanski and Chiapello 2005
[1999]). But the fact remains that there is a decisive ongoing battle around
the private appropriation of the means of intellectual production—in particu-
lar, on the internet—and that, ten years after Moulier-­Boutang was writing,
the struggle continues. The practice of free software thus contests the global
logic of capitalism almost “by default”—that is, without the need for a higher
level of reflexivity. Free software actors cannot be suspected of naivety: they
know very well the level at which the game is being played. But it is important
to note that they do not need to know this for the critique to be effective: Do it
yourself! is itself a radical questioning of capitalism because it weakens its hold
on a sector that is crucial to the future development of productive activity.
Saying this is not to promote the possibility of “bringing about the
revolution without knowing it”. Nonetheless, practices of resistance that
enjoy this privilege, which is usually reserved for capitalism itself, are
developing: we are seeing the emergence of a capacity for subverting capi-
talism through the simple effect of contagion. Even if we will not be able
to dispense with reflexive self-transformation within this process of trans-
formation, certain slopes will be easier to climb than others. Both the
AMAP and free software experiments give us examples of the relevance of
practices that in a sense “spontaneously” access a higher level of generality.
Another Random Scribd Document
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 Immunology - Student Handbook
First 2022 - Academy

Prepared by: Teacher Williams

Date: August 12, 2025

Introduction 1: Assessment criteria and rubrics

Learning Objective 1: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Learning Objective 2: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Learning Objective 3: Current trends and future directions
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Learning Objective 4: Ethical considerations and implications
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Learning Objective 5: Research findings and conclusions
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Practical applications and examples
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Historical development and evolution
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 7: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice Problem 7: Current trends and future directions
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Research findings and conclusions
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 9: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Summary 2: Critical analysis and evaluation
Important: Case studies and real-world applications
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Historical development and evolution
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Ethical considerations and implications
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Important: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Key terms and definitions
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 16: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Key terms and definitions
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 17: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice Problem 17: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Research findings and conclusions
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 19: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Example 19: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Discussion 3: Fundamental concepts and principles
Note: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 21: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Study tips and learning strategies
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 23: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Definition: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 24: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Example 24: Literature review and discussion
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 25: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice Problem 25: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Definition: Literature review and discussion
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 28: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Example 29: Experimental procedures and results
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Introduction 4: Statistical analysis and interpretation
Important: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 32: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Case studies and real-world applications
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Historical development and evolution
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Literature review and discussion
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 37: Best practices and recommendations
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 38: Experimental procedures and results
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Historical development and evolution
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Topic 5: Critical analysis and evaluation
Practice Problem 40: Research findings and conclusions
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Current trends and future directions
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Case studies and real-world applications
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Experimental procedures and results
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Literature review and discussion
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 47: Case studies and real-world applications
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 49: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Introduction 6: Theoretical framework and methodology
Example 50: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Experimental procedures and results
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 53: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Definition: Best practices and recommendations
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 54: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Research findings and conclusions
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 55: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Definition: Best practices and recommendations
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 57: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Module 7: Ethical considerations and implications
Practice Problem 60: Ethical considerations and implications
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 61: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 63: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Example 63: Research findings and conclusions
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 64: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Ethical considerations and implications
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Experimental procedures and results
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 70: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Conclusion 8: Ethical considerations and implications
Remember: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice Problem 72: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Example 73: Key terms and definitions
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 75: Literature review and discussion
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 77: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Definition: Literature review and discussion
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 78: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 79: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice 9: Ethical considerations and implications
Remember: Current trends and future directions
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 81: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Important: Key terms and definitions
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 82: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Ethical considerations and implications
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Key Concept: Best practices and recommendations
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Current trends and future directions
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Remember: Case studies and real-world applications
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Definition: Current trends and future directions
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice Problem 88: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Key Concept: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Topic 10: Best practices and recommendations
Note: Practical applications and examples
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Ethical considerations and implications
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 93: Literature review and discussion
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 94: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Example 94: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 95: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 96: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Historical development and evolution
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Section 11: Historical development and evolution
Practice Problem 100: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 101: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Key terms and definitions
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 103: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Literature review and discussion
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 105: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 106: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Example 106: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 107: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
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