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i

A Future in Ruins
Copyright © 2018. Oxford University Press USA - OSO. All rights reserved.

Meskell, Lynn. A Future in Ruins : UNESCO, World Heritage, and the Dream of Peace : UNESCO, World Heritage, and the
ii
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Meskell, Lynn. A Future in Ruins : UNESCO, World Heritage, and the Dream of Peace : UNESCO, World Heritage, and the
iv

1
Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It furthers
the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education
by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered trade mark of Oxford University
Press in the UK and certain other countries.

Published in the United States of America by Oxford University Press

198 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016, United States of America.

© Oxford University Press 2018

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in

a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the
prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted
by law, by license, or under terms agreed with the appropriate reproduction
rights organization. Inquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the
above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the
address above.

You must not circulate this work in any other form

and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer.

CIP data is on fle at the Library of Congress

ISBN 978–​0–​19–​064834–​3

1 3 5 7 9 8 6 4 2
Printed by Sheridan Books, Inc., United States of America
Copyright © 2018. Oxford University Press USA - OSO. All rights reserved.

Meskell, Lynn. A Future in Ruins : UNESCO, World Heritage, and the Dream of Peace : UNESCO, World Heritage, and the
v

For Jessica and Louise

Copyright © 2018. Oxford University Press USA - OSO. All rights reserved.

Meskell, Lynn. A Future in Ruins : UNESCO, World Heritage, and the Dream of Peace : UNESCO, World Heritage, and the
vi
Copyright © 2018. Oxford University Press USA - OSO. All rights reserved.

Meskell, Lynn. A Future in Ruins : UNESCO, World Heritage, and the Dream of Peace : UNESCO, World Heritage, and the
vi

Contents

List of Figures ix
Acknowledgments xi
Preface xv

1 Utopia 1
2 Internationalism 28
3 Technocracy 59
4 Conservation 90
5 Inscription 118
6 Confict 143
Copyright © 2018. Oxford University Press USA - OSO. All rights reserved.

7 Danger 172
8 Dystopia 202

Notes 229
Bibliography 317
Index 345

Meskell, Lynn. A Future in Ruins : UNESCO, World Heritage, and the Dream of Peace : UNESCO, World Heritage, and the
vi
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Meskell, Lynn. A Future in Ruins : UNESCO, World Heritage, and the Dream of Peace : UNESCO, World Heritage, and the
ix

List of Figures

2.1. The Temple of Abu Simbel, Egypt, 1965 34

2.2. Excavation at Semna West, Nubia, 1964 39
2.3. Archaeological encampment on the Nile,
Nubia, 1964 46
3.1. Laneway at Moenjodaro, taken from M. Wheeler,
Early India and Pakistan 62
3.2. Moenjodaro archaeological site, Pakistan 63
4.1. St. Mark’s Square, Venice, Italy 92
4.2. Pompeii archaeological site, Italy 98
4.3. Virupaksha Temple and bulldozed Hampi Bazaar,
Hampi, India 101
4.4. Panama City and the old town area known
as Casco Viejo, Panama 104
4.5. Bagan Archaeological Park, Myanmar 110
Copyright © 2018. Oxford University Press USA - OSO. All rights reserved.

4.6. Angkor Archaeological Park, Cambodia 112

5.1. Preah Vihear Temple, Cambodia 119
5.2. World Heritage Committee meetings,
Krakow, Poland, 2017 128
5.3. Çatalhöyük archaeological site 135
6.1. Church of the Redeemer, Ani, Turkey 146
6.2. Gunkanjima or Battleship Island, Nagasaki,
one of the Meiji industrial sites 151
6.3. Old City of Jerusalem, archaeological excavations 165
7.1. Palmyra Concert 2016 176
7.2. Umayyad Mosque, Aleppo, 2013 181
8.1. Sana’a, Yemen 216

Meskell, Lynn. A Future in Ruins : UNESCO, World Heritage, and the Dream of Peace : UNESCO, World Heritage, and the
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Meskell, Lynn. A Future in Ruins : UNESCO, World Heritage, and the Dream of Peace : UNESCO, World Heritage, and the
xi

Acknowledgments

A book on World Heritage necessarily conjures up a global itinerary,

and I have been very fortunate over the past decade to be able to travel so
extensively. Research for this book was greatly enriched by time spent in
many countries visiting sites, conducting research and interviews, giving
lectures, and learning about the UNESCO experience from my colleagues.
In Australia I was fortunate to have generous interlocutors in Sydney and
Melbourne, including Jennifer Barrett, Brett Bennet, Kristal Buckley, Denis
Byrne, Elizabeth Gray, Duncan Ivison, William Logan, Glenda Sluga, Ana
Vrdoljak, Andrea Whitcomb, and Tim Winter. Deakin University kindly
ofered me their Thinker in Residence Fellowship during the summer of
2014. In Brazil I was superbly hosted by Pedro Funari and Tobias Vilhena;
for my time in Peru I am grateful to Luis Jaime Castillo Butters, Francesca
Fernandini, and Grace Ocaña as well as government representatives in
Lima and Cuzco. Ca’ Foscari University supported my time in Venice, and
Copyright © 2018. Oxford University Press USA - OSO. All rights reserved.

I am grateful to Antonio Marcomini, Diego Calaon, and Krish Seetah for

arranging site visits and lectures. In China Xingan Chen kindly organ-
ized lectures and feld trips in and around Beijing and Xi’an. Over many
summers in Thailand colleagues including Rasmi Shoocongdej, Paritta
Koanantakool, Lia Genovese, Hahn Bich, and Thanik Lertchanrit took time
to explain Thai archaeology and heritage matters. Part of this feldwork in
Asia was supported under the Australian Research Council’s Discovery
scheme (The Crisis in International Heritage Conservation in an Age of
Shifting Global Power, DP140102991).
While working on World Heritage I spent many months in India
over the past few years, which has proven compelling, so much so that
it warrants its own distinct project. If anywhere could teach us about the
monumental challenges of World Heritage, it is India. So for my frst
introduction to Indian archaeology and culture and for her long-​term
support I will always be grateful to Himanshu Prabha Ray. During my

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xii Acknowledgments

months in New Delhi and at research sites throughout Rajasthan, Gujarat,

and Karnataka I am indebted to many individuals who shared their time,
knowledge, and contacts: Pooja Agrawal, Andrew Bauer, Moe Chiba, Divay
Gupta, Rima Hooja, Shikha Jain, Karni Jasol, Renu Khosla, Nyanjot Lahiri,
Swapna Liddle, AGK Menon, Kathleen Morrison, Ratish Nanda, Vinay
Sheel Oberoi, Rohini Pande, Shubham Prajapati, Krupa Rajangam, Indira
Rajaraman, Nalini Thakur, and Mudit Trivedi. During summer 2016 I was
a GIAN Fellow funded by the Government of India and based at Jawaharlal
Nehru University, New Delhi.
This book was written on sabbatical during 2016–​17 with the support
of several fellowships and afliations. In Paris I am indebted to Alain
Schnapp and the University of Paris I Panthéon-​Sorbonne, as well as Jean-​
Luc Lory and Nadia Chenour at the Maison Suger, part of the Fondation
Maison des Sciences de l’Homme, Paris. Mary Beard, Enrico Bertacchini,
Kimberly Bowes, Richard Hodges, Nicholas Stanley-​Price, and Gamini
Wijesuriya provided guidance and inspiration while I was based at the
American Academy in Rome. As Visiting Fellow at New College, Oxford,
in 2017 I shall always be thankful to the Warden and Fellows, but most of
all to Caroline Thomas, who has supported me over the past twenty years,
since my days as Junior Research Fellow in the late 1990s. Keble College,
Oxford, hosted me in 2015 as Senior Research Visitor, thanks in large part
to the generosity of my friend and colleague Chris Gosden. Oxford was
made even more pleasant and productive by lively conversations with
Copyright © 2018. Oxford University Press USA - OSO. All rights reserved.

Paul Betts, Michael Burden, Jane Kaye, Ben Noble, Richard Parkinson,
and Andrew Wilson. For her help with Sir Mortimer Wheeler’s archive,
now housed at the National Archives, London, I thank Katie Meheux from
University College London.
At UNESCO’s World Heritage Centre in Paris many people have
been instrumental to my research over many years, but I especially want
to mention Nada Al Hassan, Alessandro Balsamo, Tim Curtis, Lazare
Eloundou, Feng Jing, Edmond Moukala, Kishore Rao, and Mechtild
Rössler. Many months were fruitfully spent in UNESCO’s archives
thanks to the endless patience of Jens Boel, Alexandre Coutelle, Adele
Torrance, Phan Sang, and Petra Van Den Born. From related institutions
including ICOMOS and the IUCN I thank the good humor and generosity
of Tim Badman, Gwenaelle Bourdin, and Regina Durighello. Moreover,
ambassadors to UNESCO and members of national delegations from
many nations have shared their expertise, experiences, and opinions.
Some even read articles before publication, suggested lines of enquiry to

Meskell, Lynn. A Future in Ruins : UNESCO, World Heritage, and the Dream of Peace : UNESCO, World Heritage, and the
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Acknowledgments xiii

follow, and, despite exposure to personal criticism, invited me to lecture at

their national institutions.
A number of friends and colleagues read parts of the manuscript and
ofered their considered comments, including Paul Betts, Brett Bennett,
Annalisa Bolin, Denis Byrne, Chiara De Cesari, David Edwards, Ian
Hodder, Richard Hodges, Helen Human, Ben Isakhan, Eugene Jo, Sophia
Labadi, Claudia Liuzza, Carrie Nakamura, Sabrina Papazian, Tamson
Pietsch, Himanshu Ray, Simone Ricca, Trinidad Rico, Alain Schnapp,
and Gamini Wijesuriya. William Logan deserves special note for his close
reading of the entire manuscript and for sharing his many years of World
Heritage experience. Christina Luke and Ana Vrdoljak were also especially
wonderful. Other colleagues who have provided direction and inspira-
tion in diferent ways from the start of this project include David Berliner,
Nicholas Brown, Christoph Brumann, Brian Daniels, Chris Cleere, Henry
Cleere, Brigitta Hauser-​ Schäublin, Michael Herzfeld, Morag Kersel,
Richard Leventhal, Ian Lilley, David Lowenthal, Webber Ndoro, Gertjan
Plets, Uzma Rivzi, and Helen Stacy.
At Stanford University I would like to acknowledge the Institute for
Research in the Social Sciences. In my department I am fortunate to work
alongside anthropologists who are attuned to the politics and materialities
of heritage, especially Paulla Ebron, James Ferguson, Miyako Inoue,
Sharika Thiranagama, and Sylvia Yanigisako. My graduate students,
past and present, are always instructive and inspiring and hold the real
Copyright © 2018. Oxford University Press USA - OSO. All rights reserved.

promise for the future. My deepest gratitude is to Claudia Liuzza for the
time we spent studying UNESCO both at Stanford and around the world
from Paris to Phnom Penh. Her insights and expertise have undoubtedly
made this a better book and my experience researching it much the richer.
This book would not have materialized without the vision and guidance
of Stefan Vranka at OUP New York. He encouraged me to write a book
about UNESCO in the frst place and his insight and encouragement at
every stage made writing it an unexpected delight. Finally, this book is
dedicated to Jessica Pearson and Louise Martin with all my admiration
and afection.

Paris 2017

Meskell, Lynn. A Future in Ruins : UNESCO, World Heritage, and the Dream of Peace : UNESCO, World Heritage, and the
xvi
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Meskell, Lynn. A Future in Ruins : UNESCO, World Heritage, and the Dream of Peace : UNESCO, World Heritage, and the
xv

Preface
The past rules us absolutely. These dreams—​
—​H . G. Wells, 1905

On November 16, 1945, forty-​four nations gathered in London to forge an

international body for educational and cultural cooperation under the aegis
of the United Nations. Their project was no less than the intellectual and
moral reconstruction of a world in ruins. At the San Francisco Conference
that gave rise to the United Nations, President Harry S. Truman stressed
the importance of a new international commitment to cultural and educa-
tional cooperation. This was in large measure inspired by his predecessor
Franklin D. Roosevelt’s conviction that “civilization is not national—​it is
international.”1
When British prime minister Clement Attlee uttered those famous
words that “wars begin in the minds of men,” he captured what many
had said already in the 1930s. In his speech at the Conference for the
Establishment of the United Nations Educational, Scientifc and Cultural
Organization (UNESCO), he declared that “the peoples of the world are
Copyright © 2018. Oxford University Press USA - OSO. All rights reserved.

islands shouting at each other over seas of misunderstanding.” Atlee

recognized that in the future “we are to live in a world of democracies,
where the mind of the common man will be all important.”2 However, it
was the New Zealand delegate, Arnold Campbell, who made the linkage
between peace, democracy, and education.3 This became the chief objec-
tive of the new organization, to contribute to peace and security throughout
the world by “promoting collaboration among nations through education,
science, culture and communication in order to further universal respect
for justice, the rule of law, human rights and fundamental freedoms set
out in the Charter of the United Nations.”4 As the president of the confer-
ence, Ellen Wilkinson, saw it, “We need the organization of something
positive—​the positive creation of peace and the ways of peace.”5 But what
philosophy would inspire such a venture and how international solidarity
might be manufactured were just some of the concrete challenges they
faced with the dream of peace.6

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xvi Preface

The foundational aspirations of UNESCO rest upon the modernist

rhetorics of progress, development, and uplift that many critics consider
its fatal faw. Forged in the twilight of empire and led by the victors of
the war and major colonizing powers, UNESCO’s founders sought to
expand their infuence through the last gasps of the civilizing mission.
Beginning as a program of reconstruction for a war-​ravaged Europe,
UNESCO soon set its sights on the developing world. Its aim was to for-
mulate and disseminate global standards for education, science, and cul-
tural activities.7 However, it would remain a one-​way fow, later to prove
problematic, from the West to the rest. Within a matter of years the
philosophical appeal for cultural understanding and uplift, a culture of
peace no less, would be sidelined by the functionalist objectives of short-​
term technical assistance.8 Nevertheless, it would be churlish to overlook
UNESCO’s achievements internationally, from the protection of refugees
to freedom of expression and freedom from oppression, its confrontation
of racism and apartheid, and its committed stance on education, rights
and fundamental freedoms.9 It would also be misguided to expect that
one organization could efectively resolve all the problems of the world.
Dag Hammarskjöld, the much-​revered Secretary-​General of the United
Nations from 1953 to his untimely death in 1961, put it best when he said
that such organizations were created not to bring us to heaven but in
order to save us from hell.
It is not possible to fathom the creation of UNESCO’s programs without
Copyright © 2018. Oxford University Press USA - OSO. All rights reserved.

understanding the history of UNESCO itself, its dystopian beginnings,

and its utopian promise. In autumn 1942 the Allies set up a Conference
of Allied Ministers of Education in London and assembled authorities
from the feld of education from eight governments then in exile.10 They
were there to plan the reconstruction of education systems in a liberated
Europe. Libraries and books were needed, coupled with an ideological pro-
gram to combat the fascist propaganda that had poisoned the continent.11
Cultural reconstruction was also on the agenda in the face of international
outrage at Nazi looting and the decimation of Europe’s artistic treasures
and heritage.12 By 1943 the idea of a permanent organization addressing
educational and cultural reconstruction began to take shape. In an attempt
to sum up the vision and mission of UNESCO in a single sentence, one
historian replied, “Following the catastrophes of the twentieth century,
there is a need to reconstruct and above all to educate, in a scientifc frame
of mind, human beings that are equal and diferent, possessing the means
to communicate, in order to protect and safeguard peace, the diversity of

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Preface xvii

cultures and ultimately life itself.”13 There is still much in this explanation
that remains relevant today.
Ruins were also on the agenda for reconstruction. But it was not
simply that great buildings, museums, and art were afected by the war
and required rehabilitation. It was the regulation of the past itself, and
how it might be recovered, that was deemed part of a new world order.
How archaeological excavations were conducted around the world and
the resulting discoveries disseminated also required restructuring.
Ultimately, archaeology’s spoils were to be divided up for Western advan-
tage, echoing earlier recommendations made by the League of Nations and
its International Committee for Intellectual Cooperation. The past would
be managed for the future. UNESCO capitalized upon an already existing
momentum for a world-​making project devoted to humanity’s heritage.
What followed was an inevitable progression from the vast conservation
and restoration eforts needed in the wake of destruction after two world
wars toward a more lasting project of rehabilitation and recovery.
Many critical accounts and analyses of UNESCO have been written,
coupled with ofcial histories and narratives by well-​placed insiders.14
Together they tell the story of an imperfect organization that began with
midcentury optimism but rapidly devolved from an assembly of statesmen
to a tyranny of states. Originally a globally oriented organization, UNESCO
was transformed into an intergovernmental agency, a mere shadow of its
former ambition for a world peace and mutual understanding between
Copyright © 2018. Oxford University Press USA - OSO. All rights reserved.

peoples. The overreach of powerful governments has come to permeate

all aspects of its functioning. This is refected in the workings of many
of its high-​profle programs, including World Heritage-​-​the program that
seeks to identify, protect, and preserve outstanding cultural and natural
heritage sites around the world. While there are considerable problems, as
this book reveals, they should not detract from UNESCO’s achievements
in creating a planetary concern for heritage preservation and its ability,
however circumscribed, to exert pressure on its Member States to honor
the treaties that they have ratifed.
Entreating the world to conserve its cultural and natural places in the
face of escalating industrialization and destruction can surely only be a
positive step, yet how nations mobilize that call and at whose expense
reveals a more complex dilemma. For example, the campaign to save the
Cambodian site of Angkor is upheld by UNESCO as one of its greatest con-
servation achievements. Yet in conserving the temples the organization also
legitimated the brutal Khmer Rouge, and in the decades to follow, harsh

Meskell, Lynn. A Future in Ruins : UNESCO, World Heritage, and the Dream of Peace : UNESCO, World Heritage, and the
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xviii Preface

restrictions were placed on local communities by state authorities. These

are the complicated stories of conservation, the underneath of things, that
UNESCO cannot ofcially recount, since the nation-​state is the ultimate
arbiter of World Heritage. That tension between international aspiration
and national machination on the ground constitutes a central strand that
runs throughout this book, and while such statist self-​interest has been
there since UNESCO’s beginnings, the politico-​economic intercalations
have multiplied over the decades. Given UNESCO’s founding and pur-
pose, the organization is required to tell the story of successful salvage; it
cannot aford to dwell in the messiness of history.
UNESCO’s major contribution may be its pioneering of international
legal instruments such as the 1972 World Heritage Convention. Perhaps
more subtle is its development of a body of general principles and cus-
tomary norms of international law in the feld of cultural heritage pro-
tection.15 Its legal framing, resting upon an assembly of States Parties,
provides its structure but also its limitation, premised on the goodwill
and civility of states, both to each other and to their citizens. In a world
where nonstate actors are now some of its most destructive combatants,
the agencies of the United Nations have struggled to make adequate pro-
vision. UNESCO’s inability to mediate during the destruction of religious
sites in Mali and ongoing assaults in Syria, to name just two settings, re-
mains a conundrum. Prosecuting one individual for war crimes against
cultural property seems to lose sight of the larger impetus for attacks in the
Copyright © 2018. Oxford University Press USA - OSO. All rights reserved.

frst place. UNESCO’s failure to censure the illegal occupation in Crimea

or the bombardment of Yemen, both perpetrated by its Member States in
breach of various international treaties, reveals further fatal shortcomings.
Much valuable research on the World Heritage Convention has appeared
since its establishment in 1972, from a range of diferent disciplines
and perspectives.16 Academics, activists, local communities, and indige-
nous peoples have, however, expressed dissatisfaction with UNESCO’s
philosophies, procedures, regulations, impacts, and exclusions. It is not
only issues of nationalism and sovereignty that rankle, but the inability
of today’s World Heritage regime to incorporate the living aspects of her-
itage that necessitate rights of inclusion, access, use, and benefts. This
view further bolsters the point that the organization cannot continue to
privilege the technical, but must revisit its early commitments to creating
a better world. In some cases that may entail not inscribing sites on a list
but rather allowing groups to determine their own path for heritage. For
UNESCO’s part it may mean intervening more strongly when its Member

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Preface xix

States attempt to forcibly relocate people, refuse to collaborate with them

or include them in World Heritage processes, or fail to consider their needs
for site use and management. For conservation to fulfll its midcentury
promise for the future, it must strive to include the people who matter
most, whose heritage it is, and to consider those who have most to win or
lose in the fate of World Heritage sites. And fnally, we have to be more
attendant to history, to the actions of empires and nations that still infu-
ence the future of sites and regions, and specifcally those conficts that
continue to haunt and recur. We forget that heritage at our peril.

A Future in Ruins was conceived and completed at New College, Oxford.

During a sabbatical in 2010 I confessed to fellow archaeologist Chris
Gosden that UNESCO would make a fascinating project for study, partic-
ularly its World Heritage program. He responded by laying out a paradox
that I found compelling. While it was true that UNESCO status bestows
a level of international prestige upon ancient sites, for archaeology as a
discipline the organization means almost nothing. World Heritage might
ofer the only truly global platform to showcase the world’s most famous
archaeological sites to a global public, and yet Gosden was right that it had
little impact upon the history of our discipline. I wanted to understand why.
He convinced me to undertake the project. I soon discovered that
archaeologists, like many other scholars, had no great admiration for
the organization and are more likely to summarily dismiss, misrepre-
sent, or criticize UNESCO and its World Heritage List than to acknowl-
Copyright © 2018. Oxford University Press USA - OSO. All rights reserved.

edge its achievements. Educating ourselves about UNESCO then seemed

to me the frst step, and this project began as an exercise to understand
the workings of World Heritage. It was nothing short of a discovery to
fnd that the discipline of archaeology was originally part of UNESCO’s
early intellectual momentum and had even extended back to its illustrious
predecessor, the League of Nations. And while there was an archaeological
component to UNESCO’s famous Nubian Monuments Campaign to save
and study the sites and temples in Egypt and Sudan scheduled for submer-
sion with the completion of the Aswan Dam, this was short-​lived. In 1970
when the Tabqa Dam threatened the same fate for archaeological sites
in Syria’s Upper Euphrates Valley, UNESCO proposed an international
appeal rather than a full-​scale campaign, advising nations interested in ex-
cavation to enter into their own bilateral agreements with Syria.
The implications for archaeology in UNESCO’s utopian, one-​ world
mission for the future all but stalled after the 1960s. Some years ago, a

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xx Preface

senior UNESCO bureaucrat invited me to provide an ofcial defnition

of an archaeological site, simply because it had never been adequately
formulated by the organization. But the shift away from archaeology as a
discipline marked a loss for UNESCO and its later development of a her-
itage program. That program would often be cast as conserving static sites
and monuments, lacking active research agendas, and not infrequently
overlooking living people and their practices. Quite the reverse was true for
archaeology. Its historical development has increasingly incorporated and
relied upon the perspectives and participation of local communities, indige-
nous groups, and other stakeholders that bring the past alive in the present.
As a modern discipline, archaeology efectively straddles the
humanities and sciences, thus representing an administrative predica-
ment for UNESCO’s sectoral structure. Yet archaeology has the capacity
to bridge disciplines, as Julian Huxley, UNESCO’s frst Director-​General,
immediately recognized, and to build international cooperation and
partnerships in active and long-​term ways. These are horizontal rather
than vertical relationships, not simply captured in a single moment such
as site inscription or at the level of the nation-​state, but conducted over
the long term and with many institutions and groups. In Africa, Asia, and
the Middle East with their long histories of colonization, archaeological
heritage projects can play vital roles in confguring new relationships and
challenging negative legacies. Not simply a monumental exercise, archae-
ology today embraces and contributes to diferent heritage perspectives: it
Copyright © 2018. Oxford University Press USA - OSO. All rights reserved.

extends beyond a simple site-​ based focus and involves neighboring

communities, training programs, academic and institutional linkages,
scholarly exchanges, and so on. These struck me as some of the discipli-
nary dimensions that UNESCO’s World Heritage program had failed to
capitalize upon. How and why this unfolded as it did was tied to tensions
over UNESCO’s central mission—​would it be promoting world peace or
providing technical assistance?
A Future in Ruins focuses exclusively upon archaeology and cultural
heritage, moving from the early salvage campaigns to the 1972 Convention
Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage,
commonly referred to as the World Heritage Convention or the 1972
Convention.17 Other UNESCO conventions pertaining to intangible her-
itage, cultural property, and cultural diversity, while relevant and related,
lie beyond the scope of this work. These conventions have their own
structures, staf, statutory meetings, signatories, and legal formulations that
do not precisely map onto World Heritage. UNESCO ofcials often see the

Meskell, Lynn. A Future in Ruins : UNESCO, World Heritage, and the Dream of Peace : UNESCO, World Heritage, and the
Another Random Scribd Document
with Unrelated Content
 Sociology - Quick Reference
Winter 2022 - Laboratory

Prepared by: Teacher Garcia

Date: July 28, 2025

Discussion 1: Research findings and conclusions

Learning Objective 1: Historical development and evolution
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 1: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Learning Objective 2: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Learning Objective 3: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 3: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Learning Objective 4: Best practices and recommendations
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Learning Objective 5: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Important: Ethical considerations and implications
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 6: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Definition: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 9: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Literature review and discussion
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 10: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Methodology 2: Best practices and recommendations
Definition: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Research findings and conclusions
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 12: Experimental procedures and results
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 13: Case studies and real-world applications
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Research findings and conclusions
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Best practices and recommendations
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 16: Study tips and learning strategies
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 18: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice Problem 18: Ethical considerations and implications
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 19: Best practices and recommendations
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 20: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Abstract 3: Best practices and recommendations
Note: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Example 21: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Practice Problem 22: Best practices and recommendations
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Practice Problem 24: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Case studies and real-world applications
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 26: Experimental procedures and results
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Definition: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Historical development and evolution
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Historical development and evolution
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Test 4: Interdisciplinary approaches
Note: Practical applications and examples
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Historical development and evolution
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 32: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice Problem 34: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Literature review and discussion
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 36: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Example 38: Literature review and discussion
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Current trends and future directions
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Lesson 5: Interdisciplinary approaches
Definition: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 41: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Example 41: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Definition: Practical applications and examples
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Ethical considerations and implications
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 44: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice Problem 44: Current trends and future directions
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 46: Case studies and real-world applications
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Key terms and definitions
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice Problem 48: Experimental procedures and results
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 49: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Important: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Methodology 6: Case studies and real-world applications
Remember: Best practices and recommendations
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 51: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Key terms and definitions
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Research findings and conclusions
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Key terms and definitions
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 55: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Example 55: Study tips and learning strategies
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 56: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Key terms and definitions
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Key terms and definitions
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Experimental procedures and results
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 60: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Chapter 7: Ethical considerations and implications
Remember: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 62: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Research findings and conclusions
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 63: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Case studies and real-world applications
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 65: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 67: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Example 67: Historical development and evolution
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 68: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Example 68: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Results 8: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
Example 70: Research findings and conclusions
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 71: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Current trends and future directions
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 72: Study tips and learning strategies
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 73: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 74: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice Problem 75: Research findings and conclusions
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 78: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Important: Literature review and discussion
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Research findings and conclusions
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice 9: Assessment criteria and rubrics
Practice Problem 80: Key terms and definitions
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 81: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Important: Research findings and conclusions
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 82: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 83: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 85: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Important: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 87: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 88: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Literature review and discussion
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 89: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Important: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Results 10: Assessment criteria and rubrics
Important: Historical development and evolution
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Case studies and real-world applications
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice Problem 92: Literature review and discussion
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 95: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Example 96: Case studies and real-world applications
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 97: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Study tips and learning strategies
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice Problem 98: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Background 11: Assessment criteria and rubrics
Remember: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 101: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Historical development and evolution
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 103: Ethical considerations and implications
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Literature review and discussion
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 106: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 107: Key terms and definitions
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Historical development and evolution
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Results 12: Learning outcomes and objectives
Important: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Definition: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
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