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proving in the elementary
mathematics classroom
Proving in the Elementary
Mathematics Classroom

A N DR E A S J. ST Y L I A N I DE S
University of Cambridge, UK

1
 1
Great Clarendon Street, Oxford, OX2 6DP,
United Kingdom
Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford.
It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship,
and education by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered trade mark of
Oxford University Press in the UK and in certain other countries
© Andreas J. Stylianides 2016
The moral rights of the author have been asserted
First Edition published in 2016
Impression: 1
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in
a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the
prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted
by law, by licence or under terms agreed with the appropriate reprographics
rights organization. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the
above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the
address above
You must not circulate this work in any other form
and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer
Published in the United States of America by Oxford University Press
198 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016, United States of America
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
Data available
Library of Congress Control Number: 2016932191
ISBN 978–0–19–872306–6
Printed and bound by
CPI Group (UK) Ltd, Croydon, CR0 4YY
Links to third party websites are provided by Oxford in good faith and
for information only. Oxford disclaims any responsibility for the materials
contained in any third party website referenced in this work.
To Lesia and Yannis
 Foreword

Toward the end of the twentieth century, as numerous studies revealed the difficulties for
students in moving from arithmetic to algebra (cf. Kieran, 1992; Kieran, Pang, Schifter, &
Ng, 2016; Wagner & Kieran, 1989), the question arose, What can be done in the elemen-
tary grades to better prepare students for the transition? During the subsequent decades, a
number of research teams pursued this question, particularly investigating students’ engage-
ment with activities involving functions (Blanton, 2008; Carraher, Schliemann, Brizuela, &
Earnest, 2006; Malara & Navarra, 2002; Moss & London McNab, 2011; Radford, 2014)
and generalized arithmetic (Britt & Irwin, 2011; Carpenter, Franke, & Levi, 2003; Russell,
Schifter, & Bastable, 2011a; Schifter, Monk, Russell, & Bastable, 2008).
The goal of much of this early algebra work has been to promote a way of ­thinking—
the habit of looking for regularity, and articulating, testing and proving rules or ­conjectures
(Kieran et al., 2016). These studies all shared an emphasis on students’ reasoning rather
than a more limited focus on fluent use of calculation procedures. Through classroom inter-
action in which students elaborate their own thinking and engage with their classmates’
ideas, they consider, evaluate, challenge, and justify hypotheses thus participating in prov-
ing activity.
But what does it mean for elementary-aged students, who do not have access to formal
mathematical tools for proof, to engage in proving mathematical claims? Do young stu-
dents’ proving activities constitute proofs? In what ways? As these young students engage
in mathematical reasoning, how does that activity connect to and prepare them for under-
standing proof in more advanced mathematics, a challenging topic even for older students
and adults (Harel & Sowder, 1998; Knuth, 2002a)? While there has been a strong push in
various policy documents for the inclusion of mathematical argument throughout students’
schooling (cf. National Governors Association for Best Practices & Council of Chief State
School Officers [NGA & CCSSO], 2010), these documents are generally thin in provid-
ing the characteristics of proof, types of proving activities, and examples of what this work
might look like and require of teachers in the elementary grades.
In his book, Proving in the Elementary Mathematics Classroom, Andreas Stylianides has
contributed a substantial resource to this discussion. Rich with images of 8–9-year-olds
working together on mathematics problems, the book analyzes students’ words and actions
in terms of what one should look for and expect of young children engaged in proving activ-
ities. Examples illustrate how teachers set up proving tasks and interact with their students
to challenge their thinking and move them toward proof. Furthermore, the book demon-
strates how proof and proving can be integrated into the study of numerical calculation, the
heart of mathematics content in the elementary grades: How many two addend expressions
can be made with the sum of 10? What possible numbers can be made with the digits 1, 7,
and 9? When is a product greater than its factors? Questions such as these provide fertile
ground for proving.
viii | for ewor d

Stylianides offers a definition of proof in the context of a classroom community that

includes three criteria:

Proof is a mathematical argument, a connected sequence of assertions for or against a

mathematical claim, with the following characteristics:

1. It uses statements accepted by the classroom community (set of accepted statements) that
are true and available without further justification;
2. It employs forms of reasoning (modes of argumentation) that are valid and known to, or
within the conceptual reach of, the classroom community; and
3. It is communicated with forms of expression (modes of argument representation) that are
appropriate and known to, or within the conceptual reach of, the classroom community.
(Stylianides, 2007b, p. 291) (emphasis in original)

One of the key contributions of this book is the analysis of classroom examples with respect
to these three aspects of proof. Modes of argumentation, Stylianides makes clear, are not
only within the conceptual reach of the classroom community, but are also consistent with
those that are accepted by mathematicians as proof. For example, providing numerous
examples in support of a conjecture that covers infinitely many cases does not constitute
proof, while refutation of a conjecture is established with one counterexample.
A second important contribution is Stylianides’ taxonomy of proving tasks based on the
cardinality of the question—proof involving a single case, multiple but finitely many cases,
or infinitely many cases—and whether a conjecture is being proved true or false. Each cat-
egory lends itself to a different form of argument. This taxonomy thus has the potential to
inform researchers, teachers, teacher educators, and curriculum developers about the range
of proving activities to be considered.
In this book, each type of task is illustrated through classroom examples, providing a
structure for understanding the territory of proving at these grade levels. Proving tasks take
students deeper into the underlying mathematics of the content under study, even when
the task involves only a single case. For example, in Chapter 6, the teacher posed a com-
binatorics problem—how many outfits can be made with three dresses and two hats?—and
then clarified that she wanted students to say “something interesting, not the actual answer.”
Moving beyond a single-minded focus on “the actual answer,” students come to recognize
that looking at mathematical patterns and regularities often leads to “something interest-
ing,” something about mathematical structure and relationships.
We, the authors of this Foreword, have found in our work that students who are given
regular opportunities to notice patterns across related problems, are encouraged to artic-
ulate what those patterns are, and are asked to develop arguments about why they occur,
become attuned to looking for regularities in mathematics (cf. Russell et al., 2011a). With-
out prompting from the teacher, they come up with ideas about what might be true and
offer their own conjectures. That is, they become curious about how mathematics works
and develop tools they need to test and prove their ideas. As Stylianides points out in the
concluding chapter, “once classroom norms that support argumentation and proof have
been established, students themselves can also raise the issue of proof and can engage in
proving activity independently of the teacher’s presence” (p. 159)
 for ewor d | ix

This book demonstrates that work on proof and proving can engage the whole range of
students in significant mathematical reasoning, from those who have a history of struggling
with school mathematics to those who have excelled. As one of our collaborating teachers
said recently,

[When working to notice, articulate, and prove generalizations about the operations],
there are so many opportunities for the struggling students to continue to work on
their ideas, and at the same time the more advanced students can continue their work,
pushing themselves to think further about a particular concept, representation, conjec-
ture, etc. (Russell, Schifter, Bastable, Higgins, & Kasman, in press)

Stylianides points out that recent research indicates that teachers can learn content and
teaching practices that support mathematical argument and proof in elementary class-
rooms. In our work with a range of classroom teachers over the past decade, we, too, have
found that teachers can learn the relevant mathematics content, learn how young students
engage in proving, and learn teaching practices that support students in this realm (Rus-
sell, Schifter, Bastable, & Franke, submitted). However, most teachers receive their teaching
certification ill prepared to include proof and proving activities in their instruction. Many
teachers at the beginning of their work with us report that they do not have experience
supporting mathematical argument in their classroom and, in fact, are not sure what math-
ematical proof is, or what it can be for young students. This is an area teacher education pro-
grams have yet to take on. Thus, Proving in the Elementary Mathematics Classroom provides
an important resource for researchers to continue investigations into proof and proving in
the elementary grades, for teachers to develop images of students engaged in proving activ-
ities, and for teacher educators to help practicing and prospective teachers bring proving
into their classrooms.

Deborah Schifter, Principal Research Scientist

Education Development Center, Inc., Waltham, MA, USA

Susan Jo Russell, Principal Research Scientist

Education Research Collaborative at TERC, Cambridge, MA, USA
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