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Quantitative Microbiology
in Food Processing
Quantitative
Microbiology
in Food Processing
Modeling the Microbial Ecology
Edited by

Anderson de Souza Sant’Ana

Department of Food Science,
University of Campinas, Brazil
This edition first published 2017 © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Registered Office
John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, UK
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The right of Anderson de Souza Sant’Ana to be identified as the author of the editorial material in this work has been
asserted in accordance with the UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
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Set in 10/12pt Warnock Pro by SPi Global, Pondicherry, India

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Contents

List of contributors, xvi

Part I Introductory section, 1

1 Introduction to the microbial ecology of foods, 3
D. Roy and G. LaPointe
1.1 Introduction, 3
1.2 Role of food characteristics and environment on microbial fate, 4
1.2.1 Temperature, 4
1.2.2 pH and acidity, 5
1.2.3 Water activity, 6
1.2.4 Oxygen and redox potential, 6
1.2.5 Nutrient content, 7
1.2.6 Physical structure and microenvironments, 7
1.2.7 Food preservation processes (antimicrobials, preservatives), 7
1.3 Understanding microbial growth, death, persistence, competition, antagonism
and survival in food, 8
1.3.1 Principles of microbial growth, 8
1.3.2 Survival, 8
1.3.3 Strategies for persistence, 9
1.3.4 Competition, 9
1.4 Methods to study the microbial ecology of foods, 11
1.4.1 Culture‐independent analysis of microbial communities, 11
1.5 Perspectives on applying food ecosystem modeling, 12
References, 13
2 Predictive microbiology: mathematics towards understanding the fate of food‐borne
microorganisms in food processing, 16
P.N. Skandamis and E.Z. Panagou
2.1 Introduction, 16
2.2 Probability and kinetic models for food processing and HACCP, 18
2.2.1 Probability of growth models, 18
2.2.2 Growth kinetic models, 24
2.3 Thermal inactivation, 32
2.4 Non‐thermal inactivation and modeling stress‐adaptation strategies, 34
2.4.1 Modeling the adaptive responses of pathogens to inimical factors, 36
2.5 Fermentation: a dynamic environment for microbial growth and pathogen inactivation, 38
2.6 Colonial versus planktonic type of growth: modes of microbial existence on surfaces
and in liquid, semi‐liquid, and solid foods, 41
2.6.1 Biofilm formation on biotic and abiotic surfaces, 41
2.6.2 Growth rate of microorganisms in different forms of growth, 42

v
vi   Contents

2.7 Modeling microbial transfer between processing equipment and foods, 45

2.8 Alternative multivariate approaches: the use of bioinformatics for characterizing spoilage
and product classification, 49
References, 51
3 Principles of unit operations in food processing, 68
A. Ibarz and P.E.D. Augusto
3.1 Introduction, 68
3.2 Principles of transport phenomena, 68
3.3 Principles and unit operations of momentum transfer, 69
3.3.1 Food rheology, 69
3.3.2 Fluid flow, 71
3.3.3 Pumping and mixing, 72
3.4 Principles and unit operations of heat transfer, 73
3.4.1 Absorbing or removing thermal energy, 73
3.4.2 Heat transfer mechanisms and process conditions, 74
3.4.3 Steady state heat transfer, 75
3.4.4 Unsteady state heat transfer, 76
3.4.5 Heat transfer in the thermal process, 78
3.5 Principles and unit operations of mass transfer, 81
3.5.1 Mass transfer mechanisms, 81
3.6 Conclusions, 82
References, 83

Part II Impact of unit operations on microorganisms of relevance in foods, 85

4 Impact of materials handling at pre‐ and post‐harvest operations on the microbial ecology
of foods of vegetable origin, 87
A.N. Olaimat, P.J. Delaquis, and R.A. Holley
4.1 Introduction, 87
4.2 The production environment, 90
4.3 Soil, 91
4.4 Fertilizers derived from animal wastes, 92
4.5 Irrigation, 93
4.6 Harvesting and handling, 98
4.7 Postharvest processing, 99
4.8 Packaging, storage, and transportation, 101
4.9 Conclusions, 103
References, 103
5 Impact of heating operations on the microbial ecology of foods, 117
E. Xanthakis and V.P. Valdramidis
5.1 Background and basic information of heating operations, 117
5.1.1 Cooking (grilling, broiling, griddle, roasting, frying, stewing, sous‐vide, braising), 117
5.1.2 Blanching, 120
5.1.3 Pasteurization, 121
5.1.4 Commercial sterilization, 122
5.1.5 Ohmic heating, 123
 Contents   vii

5.1.6 Dielectric heating, 125

5.1.7 Infrared heating, 130
5.2 Quantitative aspects and how unit operations impact on food‐borne microorganisms, 131
5.3 Application of F‐value concept, 132
5.4 Dealing with non‐linearity, 133
5.5 Development of new concepts to assess heat processes, 135
5.6 Microbial safety and stability of heating operations: challenges and perspectives, 136
References, 136
6 Impact of refrigeration operations on the microbial ecology of foods, 142
L. Huang
6.1 Introduction, 142
6.2 Refrigeration as a unit operation, 143
6.2.1 Basic principles of refrigeration, 143
6.2.2 Changes in the microorganisms during freezing, 144
6.2.3 Changes in the microorganisms during refrigerated storage, 145
6.3 Dynamic effect of chilling on growth of C. perfringens during cooling, 147
6.3.1 Mathematical modeling of growth of C. perfringens during cooling, 148
6.3.2 Effect of temperature on growth of C. perfringens during cooling – secondary
model, 148
6.3.3 Prediction of growth of C. perfringens during cooling – a finite element
analysis, 149
6.3.4 Heat and mass transfer during heating and cooling, 149
6.3.5 Finite element analysis, 150
6.3.6 Computer simulation of transient temperature changes during cooling, 152
6.3.7 Integration of heat transfer and growth kinetics to simulate dynamic growth
of C. perfringens during cooling, 155
6.3.8 Conclusion and impact on growth of C. perfringens during cooling, 157
References, 158
7 Impact of dehydration and drying operations on the microbial ecology of foods, 160
F. Pérez‐Rodríguez, E. Carrasco, and A. Valero
7.1 Introduction, 160
7.2 Modeling the drying process in food, 161
7.3 Modeling microbial survival/inactivation in drying/dehydration processes, 163
7.3.1 Overview, 163
7.3.2 Primary models at static conditions, 164
7.3.3 Linear and non‐linear inactivation kinetics at dynamic conditions, 166
7.3.4 Secondary models, 167
7.3.5 Survival/inactivation of microorganisms in low‐moisture foods, 168
7.4 Example of application/development of predictive microbiology models for describing
microbial death during drying processes, 169
7.4.1 Listeria monocytogenes inactivation as a function of temperature
and aw, 169
7.4.2 Salmonella inactivation during drying of beef jerky, 171
7.4.3 Salmonella inactivation during drying of sausages, 172
7.5 Conclusions, 173
References, 173
viii   Contents

8 Impact of irradiation on the microbial ecology of foods, 176

S. Unluturk
8.1 Introduction, 176
8.2 Ionizing radiation, 176
8.2.1 Impact of ionizing radiation on food‐borne microorganisms, 177
8.3 Non‐ionizing radiation, 180
8.3.1 Impact of non‐ionizing radiation on food‐borne microorganisms, 181
References, 187
9 Impact of high‐pressure processing on the microbial ecology of foods, 194
S. Mukhopadhyay, D.O. Ukuku, V. Juneja, and R. Ramaswamy
9.1 Introduction, 194
9.2 Processing operation, 195
9.3 Bacteria and enzyme inactivation, 195
9.4 Effect of high pressure on fruit and vegetable products, 198
9.5 Effect of HHP on meat and other food products, 198
9.6 Effect of added antimicrobial on pathogen inactivation by high‐pressure processing
(hurdle approach), 199
9.7 High‐pressure carbon dioxide (HPCD) disinfection, 200
9.8 Effect of HHP on bacteria, virus, insects, and other organisms, 201
9.9 Effect of HHP on quality: color, flavor, texture, sugar, totally soluble, and insolubles, 203
9.10 Advantages and disadvantages of using HHP, 205
9.11 Applications and conclusions, 205
References, 206
10 Impact of Vacuum packaging, modified and controlled atmosphere on the microbial ecology
of foods, 217
L. Angiolillo, A. Conte, and M.A.D. Nobile
10.1 Introduction, 217
10.2 Vacuum packaging, 218
10.3 Controlled atmosphere, 219
10.4 Modified atmosphere packaging, 220
References, 223
11 Impact of fermentation on the microbial ecology of foods, 226
M. Mataragas, K. Rantsiou, and L. Cocolin
11.1 Introduction, 226
11.2 Fermentations: microbial ecology and activity, 227
11.3 Factors affecting food‐borne pathogen inactivation during fermentation, 227
11.3.1 Factors associated with the product, 228
11.3.2 Factors associated with the microorganisms, 228
11.3.3 Process parameters, 228
11.4 Challenge tests, 229
11.5 Predictive modeling, 230
11.5.1 Behavior of the food‐borne pathogens during inactivation, 230
11.5.2 Kinetic behavior (inactivation) models, 231
11.5.3 Case study: process challenge test for fermented products artificially
contaminated with L. monocytogenes, 233
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