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i

PURIFYING THE LAND

OF THE PURE
Q
ii
 PURIFYING
THE LAND
OF THE PURE
Q
A HISTORY OF PAKISTAN’S
RELIGIOUS MINORITIES

F ARAHNAZ I SPAHANI

1
 1
Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It furthers
the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education
by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered trade mark of Oxford University
Press in the UK and certain other countries.

Published in the United States of America by Oxford University Press

198 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016, United States of America.

© Oxford University Press 2017

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in

a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the
prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted
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rights organization. Inquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the
above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the
address above.

You must not circulate this work in any other form

and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Ispahani, Farahnaz, author.
Title: Purifying the land of the pure : a history of Pakistan’s religious
minorities / Farahnaz Ispahani.
Description: New York, NY : Oxford University Press, 2017.
Identifiers: LCCN 2016030376| ISBN 9780190621650 (hardcover : alk. paper) |
ISBN 9780190621674 (epub)
Subjects: LCSH: Religious minorities—Pakistan. | Pakistan—Politics and
government—1971–1988. | Pakistan—Politics and government—1988–
Classification: LCC BL2035.5.R45 I87 2017 | DDC 305.6095491—dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2016030376

1 3 5 7 9 8 6 4 2
Printed by Sheridan Books, Inc., United States of America
 C ON T E N T S

q
Introduction 1
1. Demography, State, and Religion 11

2. Ideological State 41
3. Militarism and National Identity 60

4. Balancing Act, 1972–​1977 79

5. Islamization, 1977–​1988 93
6. Global Jihad and Pakistan’s Minorities, 1988–​1999 135

7. Militancy, Terrorism, and Sectarianism, 1999 and Onward 165

Acknowledgments 189
Notes 191
About the Author 207
Index 209

v
vi
 Introduction

On March 27, 2016, several Pakistani Christian families gathered at a

park in Lahore to celebrate Easter Sunday when a suicide bomber deto-
nated ten kilograms of explosives and metal ball bearings between two
children’s rides. The attack, claimed by Jamaat-​ul-​Ahrar, an offshoot of
the Pakistani Taliban, killed seventy-​three people, including twenty-​
nine children. Of these children, the youngest was merely two years old
and the oldest was sixteen.1
A Jamaat-​ ul-​
Ahrar spokesperson, Ehsanullah Ehsan, announced
that his Islamist militant group had targeted Christians as a message to
Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif that they had entered Lahore—​the prime
minister’s hometown.2 The terrorists wanted the government to halt
military operations against their safe havens in Pakistan’s remote tribal
areas bordering Afghanistan.
The Easter Sunday attack had been preceded a year earlier by twin
suicide bombings at churches in Lahore’s Youhanabad area, which killed
at least fifteen people and sparked violent protests across the city by the
Christian minority. That terrorists chose to target religious minorities,
including their children, to caution the government reflected the vul-
nerability of Pakistan’s already embattled religious minorities.
Pakistan, a country created in the name of Islam, has witnessed some
of the worst persecution and discrimination of religious minorities in a
world that is increasingly becoming unsafe for minorities. The Human
Rights Watch World Report 2016 cited examples of religion-​based
violations of human rights from several countries, including those in

1
2

2 Purifying the Land of the Pure

Europe and North America that are otherwise known for defending the
Universal Declaration of Human Rights. “In Europe and the United
States, a polarizing us-​versus-​them rhetoric has moved from the po-
litical fringe to the mainstream,” Human Rights Watch warned. In its
view, “Blatant Islamophobia and shameless demonizing of refugees”
appear to have become “the currency of an increasingly assertive poli-
tics of intolerance.”3
Religious freedom, and the right of religious minorities to live in
peace, is being threatened by communal majoritarianism, which has
been at the heart of Pakistan’s policies over the years. This trend reflects
the majority’s insistence that the religious minorities practice their faith
and culture within limits prescribed by the majority. It contravenes the
United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights, which pro-
claimed in 1948 that “everyone has the right to freedom of thought,
conscience and religion; this right includes freedom to change his reli-
gion or belief, and freedom, either alone or in community with others
and in public or private, to manifest his religion or belief in teaching,
practice, worship and observance.”4 That declaration represented the
aspirations of a world that had just gone through the horrors of World
War II and did not want further conflict on religious and ideological
grounds.
Now, however, terrorist organizations acting in the name of faith are
destroying religious diversity in significant parts of the Middle East,
Sub-​Saharan Africa, and Asia. The atrocities perpetrated by the Islamic
State in Iraq and Syria (ISIS) are widely known. These include mass
executions and forced conversions alongside the kidnapping, enslave-
ment, and rape of thousands of non-​Muslim women and children.
A United Nations human rights report in March 2015 noted that
ISIS had “committed genocide, war crimes and crimes against human-
ity in its attacks against ethnic and religious groups in the country.”5
Other factions involved in the Syrian civil war have fared no better.
The regime of Bashar al-​Assad is accused of targeting Sunni Muslims
while Jabhat al-​Nusra conducted targeted executions of religious lead-
ers, including seven Druze clerics in Dara Province and a Jesuit priest
in Homs.
Regimes, such as those in Saudi Arabia and Sudan, continue to inflict
harsh punishments for “apostasy” and “blasphemy.” In Iran hundreds
3

Introduction 3

of Bahais, Christians, Sufi Muslims, Yarsanis, and Shia Muslims are in

prison for professing a doctrine not approved of by the clerical regime.
Religious conflict has often driven the politics of Lebanon whereas
the Christian Copts in Egypt have come under attack by religious
extremists.
Boko Haram has targeted non-​ Muslims in northern Nigeria,
Cameroon, Chad, and Niger, forcibly kidnapping, converting, en-
slaving, and selling young women and girls. In one such incident on
April 14, 2014, Boko Haram kidnapped more than two hundred mostly
Christian girls from Chibok, Borno State, sold them into slavery, and
forcibly converted them to their version of Islam,6 which many main-
stream Muslims find offensive.
The lack of tolerance in parts of the Muslim world has been ac-
companied by a resurgence of hate groups in western countries. A rise
in anti-​Semitic attacks has been reported across Europe, especially
France and Germany, resulting in assaults on institutions, as well as
desecration of monuments and cemeteries.7 Although western nations
have constitutional and legal mechanisms in place to restrain and even
punish perpetrators of religiously motivated attacks, it is not always
easy to shut down “hate speech” amidst controversies over freedom of
expression.
India, the world’s largest democracy, also faces the dilemma of
having a secular constitution but a religiously divided public. Sectarian
and communal hysteria, aroused to secure votes for Hindu nationalist
political groups, is proving difficult to contain after elections. Having
taken pride in their country’s secular character for decades, Indians are
now having to deal with incidents such as extremist Hindus attacking
(and in some cases killing) Muslims and Christians over eating beef.
Hindus deem the cow sacred but few believe its protection should in-
volve violating the sanctity of human life.
Religious minorities in Russia and Central Asia—​ruled by ostensibly
secular authoritarian regimes—​also face threats. For example, in eastern
Ukraine, Russian-​backed separatists kidnapped, tortured, and threat-
ened Protestants, Catholics, and Jews. Russia’s extremism law is open
to abuse by allowing prosecution for “inciting religious discord even in
the absence of any threat or act of violence.”8 Merely professing beliefs
different to those sanctioned by the state could land an individual in
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