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Saudi Clerics and Shī‘a Islam
 SAUDI
CLERICS AND
SHĪ‘A ISLAM
z
RAIHAN ISMAIL

1
 1
Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It furthers
the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education
by publishing worldwide.Oxford is a registered trade mark of Oxford University
Press in the UK and certain other countries.

Published in the United States of America by Oxford University Press

198 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016, United States of America.

© Oxford University Press 2016

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in

a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the
prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted
by law, by license, or under terms agreed with the appropriate reproduction
rights organization. Inquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the
above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the
address above.

You must not circulate this work in any other form

and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Ismail, Raihan, author.
Saudi clerics and Shī‘a Islam / Raihan Ismail.
pages cm
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978–0–19–023331–0 (cloth : alk. paper) 1. Sunnites—Relations—Shī‘ah. 2. Shī‘ah—
Relations—Sunnites. 3. Persian Gulf Region—Foreign relations—Saudi Arabia. 4. Saudi
Arabia—Foreign relations—Persian Gulf Region. I. Title.
BP194.16.I86 2016
297.8’04209538—dc23
2015030028

1 3 5 7 9 8 6 4 2
Printed by Sheriden, USA
To Andrew and Laila for their love and support
 Contents

Acknowledgments  xi
A Note on Conventions  xiii
Nouns and Adjectives xv

Introduction 1
The ‘Ulamā’ and Shī‘a Islam  1
Religious Convictions   3
Political Circumstances   4
Categorizing the ‘Ulamā’   8
Outline of Chapters   11

1. The Saudi ‘Ulamā’  13

The Emergence of Wahhābism  13
The Relationship between the ‘Ulamā’ and the Ruling Family
(Umarā’): State Bureaucratization  15
Establishment ‘Ulamā’   18
Education   20
Interpreters of the Sharī‘ah  22
Regulators of Morality  25
Non-establishment ‘Ulamā’   26
Conclusion   30

2. The Sunni-Shī‘a Divide: A Historical Overview  32

Origins: The Shī‘a Faith   32
The Shī‘a during the Umayyad Caliphate   33
The Shī‘a during the ‘Abbasid Caliphate   35
viii Contents

The Shī‘a during the Ottoman Caliphate and the Rise of the Safavid
and Qajar Dynasties   37
Shī‘a Evolution and Sunni Scholars  39
Imām Mālik Ibn Anas: The Early Period of Shī‘a Evolution   41
Ibn Taymiyyah   45
Maḥmūd Shaltūt and Yūsuf al-Qarḍāwī   49
Conclusion   53

3. The Theological Convictions of the Saudi ‘Ulamā’ toward Shī‘īsm  54

Who Are the Rāfiḍah?   55
Shī‘a Religious Beliefs: The Interpretations of the Saudi
‘Ulamā’   65
The Shī‘a Imāmate and the Infallibility of the Shī‘a Imāms   80
Similarities between the Jews, the Christians, the Zoroastrians,
and the Shī‘a   81
The Twelvers Belief in the Twelve Imāms   83
The Shī‘a Belief in the Awaited Mahdī and the Return (al-Raj‘ah)
of the Shī‘a Imāms   84
Shī‘a Religious Practices   85
Shī‘a Prayers   93
Conclusion   94

4. The Saudi ‘Ulamā’ and the Internal Shī‘a Threat  96

The Treatment of Shī‘a in Saudi Arabia   97
The Road to Change: Myths and Realities   106
The Early ‘Ulamā’   108
The Saudi ‘Ulamā’ and Shī‘a Political Activism   110
Saudi ‘Ulamā’: Different Approaches and Methods   116
Population and Birth Rates   118
Saudi Shī‘a: Accusations of Disloyalty and Transnational
Affiliations   119
The Kingdom’s Other Shī‘a Communities: Differentiation
and Marginalization   125
Shī‘a Access to Saudi Education   126
The Perception of Shī‘a Economic Threat: The Saudi
Labor Market   128
Spreading Deviance: Saudi ‘Ulamā’ and Shī‘a
Religious Activities   131
 Contents ix

Counterattacks: When the Shī‘a Question the Saudi ‘Ulamā’   132

Conclusions   133

5. The Saudi ‘Ulamā’ and the External Shī‘a Threat: The Case of Iran  135
Saudi-Iranian Relations: Before the 1978–1979 Revolution   135
Saudi-Iranian Relations: After the 1978–1979 Iranian
Revolution   138
The Attitudes of the Early ‘Ulamā’ and Shī‘īsm in Persia   141
Contemporary Saudi ‘Ulamā’ and Iran   144
Khomeini and the Iranian Revolution   144
Perceptions of the Iranian Plot against Sunnis and Arabs   147
The Treatment of Sunnis in Iran   152
Iran’s Religious and Political Activities in the Muslim World   154
Hezbollah: Iran’s Protégé   157
The Syrian Regime   160
Saudi ‘Ulamā’: Iran’s Relations with the United States
and Israel   162
Conclusion   164

6. The Saudi ‘Ulamā’ and the External Shī‘a Threat: The Case
of Bahrain, Iraq, and Yemen  166
Bahrain   166
Iraq   177
Yemen   189
Conclusion   197

Conclusion—Shī‘a Theology: The Foundation of Animosity  199

Political Circumstances   202
The Internal Shī‘a Threat   202
The External Shī‘a Threat: Iran   205
Other External Threats: Bahrain, Iraq, and Yemen   207
Saudi Government and the ‘Ulamā’: Similarities
and Differences   210

Glossary  213
Notes  217
Bibliography  271
Index  293
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