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SPRINGER BRIEFS IN EDUC ATION

Eric C.K. Cheng

Knowledge
Management for
School Education
SpringerBriefs in Education
More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/8914
Eric C.K. Cheng

Knowledge Management
for€School Education

13
Eric C.K. Cheng
Department of Curriculum and Instruction
The Hong Kong Institute of Education
Hong Kong
Hong Kong SAR

ISSN ↜2211-1921)>> ISSN ↜2211-193X╅ (electronic)

ISBN 978-981-287-232-6)>> ISBN 978-981-287-233-3â•… (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-981-287-233-3

Library of Congress Control Number: 2014951699

Springer Singapore Heidelberg New York Dordrecht London

© The Author(s) 2015

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part
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Duplication of this publication or parts thereof is permitted only under the provisions of the Copyright
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The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication
does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant
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While the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of
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any errors or omissions that may be made. The publisher makes no warranty, express or implied, with
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Contents

1)>> Challenges for Schools in a Knowledge Society. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . )>>1

1.1)>> The Impacts of Knowledge Expansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . )>>1
1.2)>> The Challenges from Education Policies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . )>>2
1.2.1)>> The Knowledge Gap for Self-evaluation and Planning. . . . . )>>3
1.2.2)>> The Knowledge Gap for Developing
a Self-regulated Learner. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . )>>4
1.3)>> Developing a Knowledge-Sharing Culture. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . )>>4
1.4)>> Sharing of Best Practices by Social Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . )>>5
1.5)>> Teachers as Knowledge Workers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . )>>6
1.6)>> Capitalising on School Knowledge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . )>>7
1.7)>> Schools Need Knowledge Management. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . )>>8
1.8)>>Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . )>>9
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . )>>9

2)>> Knowledge Management for School Development. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . )>>11

2.1)>> What is Knowledge? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . )>>11
2.1.1)>> Positivist Perspective of Knowledge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . )>>12
2.1.2)>> Social Constructivism Perspective of Knowledge. . . . . . . . . )>>12
2.2)>> What is Knowledge Management?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . )>>13
2.3)>> How Does KM Contribute to Schools? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . )>>14
2.4)>> The Nonaka and Takeuchi KM Model. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . )>>15
2.5)>> The SECI Model and Japanese Lesson Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . )>>17
2.5.1)>>Combination. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . )>>18
2.5.2)>>Internalisation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . )>>18
2.5.3)>>Socialisation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . )>>18
2.5.4)>>Externalisation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . )>>19
2.6)>> Knowledge Management Strategy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . )>>20
2.7)>>Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . )>>21
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . )>>21

v
vi Contents

3)>> Managing Culture for Knowledge Management Implementation. . . . )>>25

3.1)>> School Culture and KM Implementation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . )>>25
3.2)>> Organisational Learning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . )>>26
3.3)>> Strategies for Promoting Organisational Learning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . )>>26
3.4)>> A Study of Senge’s Five Disciplines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . )>>29
3.5)>> Kotter’s Model for Culture Change. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . )>>30
3.6)>> Management Strategies for Developing Organisational Learning. . . )>>32
3.6.1)>> Strategies in the Policy Domain. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . )>>32
3.6.2)>> Strategies in the Cultural Domain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . )>>33
3.6.3)>> Strategies in the Leadership Domain. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . )>>34
3.7)>>Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . )>>35
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . )>>35

4)>> Cultivating Communities of Practice for Leveraging Knowledge . . . . )>>37

4.1)>> CoP as a KM Tool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . )>>37
4.2)>> What are Communities of Practice?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . )>>38
4.3)>> Applying CoPs in Schools. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . )>>39
4.4)>> Knowledge Transfer in a CoP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . )>>40
4.5)>> CoP Facilitation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . )>>41
4.6)>> A Study of CoP Facilitation Strategies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . )>>43
4.7)>> Incorporating After-Action Review in CoP Activities. . . . . . . . . . . . )>>44
4.8)>> ORID Group Facilitation Techniques. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . )>>45
4.9)>> Chapter Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . )>>45
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . )>>46

5)>> Nurturing Teachers’ Personal Knowledge

Management Competencies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . )>>49
5.1)>> Why is PKM Important? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . )>>49
5.2)>> What is PKM? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . )>>50
5.3)>> PKM in Teacher Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . )>>51
5.4)>> How to Develop PKM? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . )>>53
5.5)>> PKM Tools. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . )>>54
5.6)>> E-Learning Activities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . )>>54
5.7)>> Collaborative Action Research. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . )>>55
5.8)>> Personal Learning Environment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . )>>55
5.9)>>Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . )>>56
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . )>>57

6)>> Institutionalising a School Knowledge Management System. . . . . . . . )>>59

6.1)>> What is a KM System?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . )>>59
6.2)>> Why is a KM System Important?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . )>>60
6.3)>> Studies of KM Systems in the Education Sector. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . )>>60
6.4)>> Designing a KM System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . )>>61
6.4.1)>> IT Elements in KM Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . )>>61
6.4.2)>> Layers in KM Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . )>>62
Contents vii

6.5)>> Building Taxonomy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . )>>63

6.6)>> Knowledge Portal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . )>>64
6.7)>> Data Mining. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . )>>66
6.8)>> Promoting a KM System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . )>>67
6.9)>>Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . )>>68
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . )>>68

7)>> A Knowledge Management Model for School Development. . . . . . . . . )>>71

7.1)>> Strategic Planning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . )>>71
7.2)>> KM Enhances Strategic Planning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . )>>73
7.3)>> How Can KM Contribute to Strategic Planning?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . )>>74
7.4)>> How Can KM Improve School Performance?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . )>>76
7.5)>> Towards a Normative Model for KM Initiative
and Implementation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . )>>77
7.5.1)>> Knowledge Leadership. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . )>>77
7.5.2)>> Building KM Vision. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . )>>78
7.5.3)>> Knowledge-Sharing Culture. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . )>>78
7.5.4)>> A Normative Model for Guiding KM Strategies. . . . . . . . . . )>>79
7.6)>>Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . )>>81
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . )>>82
Chapter 1
Challenges for Schools in a Knowledge
Society

Abstract╇This chapter articulates the challenges facing schools from education

and curriculum reforms undertaken to meet the demands of a knowledge society.
The challenges include the failure of schools to conduct strategic planning in order
to develop student learning capacity for the knowledge society within the competi-
tive global economy. This chapter supports the claims that schools should conduct
knowledge management for sustainable development and develop the competency
of teachers in personal knowledge management in order to leverage teachers’ ped-
agogical knowledge.

1.1╇The Impacts of Knowledge Expansion

Organisations must rely on knowledge to create a strategic advantage for sustain-

able development in the current trend towards globalisation and competition. For
example, the external environment of any organisation is always changing and
becoming more complex. The rate of globalisation is increasing, as is the level of
competition. Information technology is constantly changing and the workforce
is becoming increasingly diverse. The complexity of managerial surrounding is
increasing rapidly and the future bears increasingly less resemblance to the past
(Drucker 1999). In this state of rapid change, organisations are becoming aware
that technology has the potential to enhance knowledge and that this enhancement
can only be realised if they have a better understanding of how knowledge is actu-
ally developed and shared.
This rapid expansion of knowledge has also dramatically influenced the level
of flexibility in the work of teachers and schools. Teachers’ work has become less
routine and more analytical and requires more collaboration. Teachers require not
only data and information regarding student learning, but also individual peda-
gogical knowledge and teaching experience, as well as collaborative knowledge
in task execution, decision making and problem solving. Knowledge expansion
forces schools to gain a better understanding of what they need to know and how
to obtain that knowledge in order to survive. “Schools are expected to develop

© The Author(s) 2015 1

E.C.K. Cheng, Knowledge Management for School Education,
SpringerBriefs in Education, DOI 10.1007/978-981-287-233-3_1
2 1â•… Challenges for Schools in a Knowledge Society

student learning capacity to support the knowledge society within the competitive
global economy, to interact with the education policy environment, and to know
how to leverage pedagogical knowledge” (Cheng 2012, p. 577). However, it is not
easy for schools to access the highest quality knowledge and expertise that is avail-
able for future development. Schools focus on managing knowledge so as to create
value and are looking for best teaching practices, innovative ideas, creative col-
laborations and streamlined processes for making effective use of knowledge. It is
important to help schools and teachers manage their knowledge and learn to cope
with change. Thus, the issue of how to help schools use their existing knowledge
to create new ideas and new knowledge is a critical research issue to be addressed.

1.2╇The Challenges from Education Policies

“Schools in Hong Kong have long encountered a variety of impacts and chal-
lenges in terms of sustainable development under many education and curricu-
lum reforms undertaken to satisfy the needs of human resources of the knowledge
society” (Cheng 2012, p. 577). The education system in Hong Kong has been
moving from quantitative to qualitative enhancement in recent years in order to
create human resources that are capable of coping with global economic competi-
tion (Education Commission 1997, 2000). Under the compulsory education policy
in place in Hong Kong since 1978, all children have the right to receive a basic
education. Since that time, education authorities have been striving to enhance the
quality of school education. In 1991 the Hong Kong Government introduced the
School Management Initiative (SMI), which was designed to encourage manage-
ment to reform aided schools in Hong Kong (Education and Manpower Branch
and Education Department 1991). The SMI was a school-based management
model that gave schools greater control over their finance and administration
and made them more accountable to the public. In 1997, the SMI was modified
to become School Based Management (SBM), and schools were not required to
adopt this system. In order to encourage more schools to participate, the former
Education Department made further changes to the policy in September 2000, pro-
viding extra grants and more flexibility.
In 1997, the Education Bureau (EdB) issued the Education Commission Report
No. 7 (Education Commission 1997) on Quality School Education. The report
suggested inculcating a culture of quality in the school system and developing a
comprehensive set of indicators to measure and monitor all aspects of a school’s
performance, educational standards and development. The report also recom-
mended “a two-pronged approach to quality assurance: internal quality assurance
done by the schools themselves, and an external quality assurance mechanism”
(Education Commission 1997, Chap. 3.1). In accordance with this recommen-
dation, the government established the Quality Assurance Inspectorate (QAI) to
monitor the quality of education and to encourage schools to achieve internal qual-
ity assurance through self-evaluation using both external and internal means. At
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