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 Science
AND
Development
OF
Muscle
Hypertrophy

Brad Schoenfeld, PhD, CSCS, CSPS, FNSCA

Lehman College, Bronx, New York

HUMAN KINETICS
 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Schoenfeld, Brad, 1962- , author.
Science and development of muscle hypertrophy / Brad Schoenfeld.
p. ; cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
I. Title.
[DNLM: 1. Muscle Development--physiology. 2. Exercise. 3. Physical Fitness. WE 500]
QP303
612.7'6--dc23
2015035559
ISBN: 978-1-4925-1960-7
Copyright © 2016 by Brad Schoenfeld
All rights reserved. Except for use in a review, the reproduction or utilization of this work in any form or
by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including xerography,
photocopying, and recording, and in any information storage and retrieval system, is forbidden without
the written permission of the publisher.
Acquisitions Editor: Roger W. Earle
Senior Developmental Editor: Christine M. Drews
Managing Editor: Karla Walsh
Copyeditor: Patsy Fortney
Indexer: Patsy Fortney
Permissions Manager: Dalene Reeder
Senior Graphic Designer: Keri Evans
Cover Designer: Keith Blomberg
Photograph (cover): © Human Kinetics
Photographs (interior): © Human Kinetics, unless otherwise noted
Photo Asset Manager: Laura Fitch
Photo Production Manager: Jason Allen
Senior Art Manager: Kelly Hendren
Associate Art Manager: Alan L. Wilborn
Illustrations: © Human Kinetics, unless otherwise noted
Printer: Walsworth
Printed in the United States of America 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
The paper in this book was manufactured using responsible forestry methods.
Human Kinetics
Website: www.HumanKinetics.com
United States: Human Kinetics Australia: Human Kinetics
P.O. Box 5076 57A Price Avenue
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To my father, may he rest in peace, for instilling the scientific
method in me for as long as I can remember. You pushed me
to learn, to pursue higher education, and to become a scholar.
Wish you were around to see the fruits of your efforts. This is for
you; I know it would have made you proud.
This page intentionally left blank.
 CONTENTS

Preface vii
Acknowledgments ix

1 Hypertrophy-Related Responses
and Adaptations to Exercise Stress 1
Neuromuscular System 1
Endocrine, Paracrine, and Autocrine Systems 15

2 Mechanisms of Hypertrophy
Mechanical Tension
29
29
Metabolic Stress 36
Muscle Damage 41

3 Role of Resistance Training Variables

in Hypertrophy 51
Volume 51
Frequency 56
Load 61
Exercise Selection 68
Type of Muscle Action 70
Rest Interval Length 76
Repetition Duration 78
Exercise Order 82
Range of Motion 86
Intensity of Effort 87

v
 Contents

4 Role of Aerobic Training in Hypertrophy

Hypertrophic Effects From Aerobic-Only Training
93
93
Concurrent Training 99

5 Factors in Maximal Hypertrophic Development

Genetics
105
105
Age 108
Sex 110
Training Status 111

6 Program Design for Maximal Hypertrophy

Biomechanics
115
115
Exercise Selection Strategies 119
Periodization 124

7 Nutrition for Hypertrophy

Energy Balance
139
139
Macronutrient Intake 140
Feeding Frequency 149
Nutrient Timing 150

References 155 Author Index 191

Subject Index 207 About the Author 213

vi
 PREFACE

The quest to develop a muscular body is an recent PubMed search of the phrase skeletal
age-old one. Natives of 11th-century India first muscle hypertrophy revealed almost 500 pub-
began using primitive dumbbell-like weights lished peer-reviewed studies in 2014 alone!
carved from stone to increase muscle size. Moreover, the techniques used to assess
Gyms were widespread in the country during hypertrophic outcomes, both acutely and
this era, and by the 16th century, weightlift- chronically, have become more advanced and
ing had become India’s national pastime. widely available. As such, we now have solid
However, it wasn’t until the late 1800s that evidence from which to develop a true under-
Prussian strongman Eugene Sandow, often standing of the hows and whys of exercise-
referred to as the Father of Modern Bodybuild- induced muscle growth.
ing, brought muscle building into the public This is the first book to synthesize the body
realm. Sandow toured the world displaying his of literature on muscle-building practices
well-muscled physique in stage show exhibi- into one complete resource. All aspects of
tions to large audiences. Sandow also is cred- the topic are covered in extensive detail, from
ited with inventing the first resistance training the mechanisms at the molecular level to the
equipment for the masses (implements such manipulation of training variables for maxi-
as dumbbells, pulleys, and tension bands), mal hypertrophic effect. Although the book
which furthered the ability to gain muscle. is technically oriented, its primary focus is on
Today, millions of people around the globe applying principles to practice. Thus, you will
train with the goal of maximizing muscle be able to draw evidence-based conclusions
mass. Some do so for purely aesthetic reasons; for customizing hypertrophy program design
others, to enhance athletic performance. A to individuals.
recent focus has been on the health-related Following is an overview of the content of
benefits of increased hypertrophy. Sarcope- the chapters:
nia, the age-related loss of muscle tissue that
affects as much as half the population over • Chapter 1 covers hypertrophy-related
80 years old, is implicated in debilitating responses and adaptations to exercise
functional impairment as well as the onset of stress. It provides an overview of the
a multitude of chronic diseases. structure and function of the neuro-
For many years, training and nutritional muscular system and the responses
approaches to maximize muscle growth were and adaptations of the neuromuscular,
primarily relegated to gym lore and personal endocrine, paracrine, and autocrine
anecdotes. Those seeking to increase muscle systems. You’ll learn about the role
size were left to follow the routines of their of fiber types in muscle growth; the
favorite bodybuilders. Scientific evidence on ways hypertrophy manifests; and how
the topic was scarce, and research-based guide- intrinsic and extrinsic factors drive the
lines were a product of gross extrapolations accretion of muscle proteins.
from limited data. • Chapter 2 delves into the mechanisms
Over the past several decades, this has responsible for exercise-induced hyper-
changed dramatically. An explosion in the trophy. Understanding the processes
number of studies investigating the hyper- involved in building muscle is essential
trophic response to training has occurred. A to developing strategies for maximizing

vii
 Preface

growth. You’ll learn how the mechan- learn how genetics, age, sex, and train-
ical forces are converted into chemical ing experience affect the ability to
signals to mediate muscle protein increase muscle size.
accretion, how the exercise-induced • Chapter 6 provides practical informa-
accumulation of metabolites stimulates tion on exercise program design for
the hypertrophic response, and how maximizing hypertrophy. This is where
structural perturbations in muscle affect the science of training becomes an
tissue remodeling. art. You’ll learn how to synergistically
• Chapter 3 details the role of resistance vary exercise selection to bring about
training variables in hypertrophy. It complete muscular development, how
is generally believed that the precise periodization models compare with
manipulation of these variables holds respect to promoting hypertrophic
the key to the growth response. You’ll gains, and how to implement a perio-
learn how volume, frequency, load, dized program to sustain results.
exercise selection, type of muscle action, • Chapter 7 examines the role of nutri-
rest interval length, repetition duration, tion for hypertrophy. Without question,
exercise order, range of motion, and dietary intake has a profound impact
effort interact to promote muscular on muscle-building capacity. You’ll
adaptations, and how they can be learn the effects of energy balance and
altered to maximize muscle growth. macronutrients on muscle growth, the
• Chapter 4 explores the impact of aer- impact of meal frequency on muscle
obic training in hypertrophy. This is protein synthesis, and the efficacy of
a highly nuanced topic, and miscon- nutrient timing for enhancing muscu-
ceptions abound. You’ll learn how lar gains.
aerobic intensity, duration, frequency, Science and Develop-
and mode affect the hypertrophic ment of Muscle Hyper-
response both when aerobic exercise is trophy is the definitive
performed in isolation and when it is resource for informa-
combined with resistance exercise (i.e., tion regarding muscle hypertrophy. An
concurrent training). image bank of most of the figures, content
• Chapter 5 looks at population-specific photos, and tables from the text is availa-
considerations that influence muscle ble to instructors who adopt the book and
building. The large differences in inter- can also be ordered by individuals from
individual hypertrophic response are www.HumanKinetics.com/ScienceAnd
the result of multiple factors. You’ll DevelopmentOfMuscleHypertrophy.

viii
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

• First and foremost, to Roger Earle, for • To my close friends and long-time col-
envisioning this project and providing leagues Bret Contreras and Alan Aragon,
all the necessary resources to ensure its for providing a stimulating scientific
quality. I am thankful for your trust in environment that continually expands my
me writing the book, and for your con- knowledge base. Our frequent discussions
tinual guidance throughout the publica- and debates have enhanced my ability to
tion process. Without your efforts, this carry out research and furthered a better
book would not have come to fruition. understanding of the practical implica-
I am eternally grateful. tions of evidence.
• To Chris Drews and Karla Walsh, for • To my students, past and present, who
effectively and efficiently managing perpetually inspire me to learn and grow,
the development of this project so that and to be the best I can be in my field. Your
everything ran smoothly. Your efforts personal development and success are
were greatly appreciated. ultimately what makes my life so fulfilling.

ix
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