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 Academic Writing

A Handbook for International Students

Second edition

Writing essays and dissertations can be a major concern for overseas students
studying at English-medium colleges and universities. Virtually all courses contain
a large degree of written assessment and it is essential to ensure that your writing
skills meet the necessary standard. Academic Writing is a new kind of writing course
for all international students who have to write exams or coursework in English. This
practical book thoroughly explains the writing process and covers all the key writing
skills.
Clearly organised into four parts, Academic Writing allows both teachers and
students to quickly find the help they need with all writing tasks. Each part is split
into short sections containing explanations, diagrams and practice exercises, for
use in the classroom or self-study. Newly revised and updated, this second edition
contains extra exercises and material – much of which has been suggested by teachers
and students.
The text is complemented with cross-references and answers are provided to the
exercises. Various writing models, such as CVs, letters and essays, are also included.
Key features of the book are:
• Explains the writing process, from understanding the title to proof-reading
• Covers key writing skills such as referencing and paraphrasing
• Contains twenty-three units on accuracy in writing
• Adaptable for both long and short courses
Any international student wishing to maximise his or her academic potential will
find this practical and easy-to-use guide to writing in English a truly indispensable
resource.
Stephen Bailey has taught English for Academic Purposes at the University of
Nottingham and the University of Derby for the past 10 years. Before that he taught
English to students in the Czech Republic, Spain, Japan and Malaysia.
 Academic
Writing
A Handbook for International Students
Second edition

Stephen Bailey
First edition published in 2003 by Nelson Thornes Ltd

This edition published 2006 by Routledge

2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN

Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada

by Routledge
270 Madison Ave, New York, NY 10016

This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2006.

“To purchase your own copy of this or any of Taylor & Francis or Routledge’s
collection of thousands of eBooks please go to www.eBookstore.tandf.co.uk.”

Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group

© 2006 Stephen Bailey

The right of Stephen Bailey to be identified as the author of this work
has been asserted by him in accordance with the Copyright, Designs
and Patents Act 1988
Printed and bound in Great Britain by MPG Books Ltd, Bodmin

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or

reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical,
or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including
photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval
system, without permission in writing from the publishers.
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

A catalog record has been requested for this book
ISBN10: 0-415-38419-2 (hbk)
ISBN10: 0-415-38420-6 (pbk)
ISBN13: 9-78-0-415-38419-3 (hbk)
ISBN13: 9-78-0-415-38420-9 (pbk)
Contents
Introduction vii
Acknowledgements ix

Part 1: THE WRITING PROCESS

Student Introduction 1

1.1 Background to Writing Writing Foundations 3

1.2 Avoiding Plagiarism 7
1.3 From Titles to Outlines 9

1.4 Evaluating Texts Reading and Note-making 13

1.5 Understanding Purpose and 17
Register
1.6 Selecting Key Points 21
1.7 Note-making 25
1.8 Paraphrasing 29
1.9 Summary Writing 32
1.10 Combining Sources 36

1.11 Planning Essays Writing Stages 39

1.12 Organising Paragraphs 43
1.13 Organising the Main Body 48
1.14 Introductions 52
1.15 Conclusions 56
1.16 Rewriting and Proof-reading 60

Part 2: ELEMENTS OF WRITING

Student Introduction 65

2.1 Argument This may be partly true, but. . . 67

2.2 Cause and Effect Flooding results from heavy rain 70
2.3 Cohesion The former. . ., while the latter. . . 73
2.4 Comparison His work is more interesting than hers 75
2.5 Definitions An assignment is a task given to 79
students
2.6 Discussion Benefits and drawbacks 82
2.7 Examples Many departments, for instance 86
medicine,
2.8 Generalisations Computers are useful machines 89
2.9 Numbers The figures in the report. . . 92
2.10 Opening Paragraphs In recent years the internet has. . . 96
2.11 References and Quotations As Donner (1997) pointed out. . . 99
2.12 Restatement and Repetition In other words. . . 103
2.13 Style Precise, semi-formal, impersonal and 105
objective
2.14 Synonyms Interpretation/explanation 109
2.15 Variation in Sentence Length Long vs. short sentences 112
2.16 Visual Information Graphs, charts and tables 114
vi Contents

Part 3: ACCURACY IN WRITING

Student Introduction 119

3.1 Abbreviations i.e./WTO/nimby 121

3.2 Academic Vocabulary subjective/objective 124
3.3 Adverbs currently/eventually 127
3.4 Articles a/an/the 130
3.5 Caution Poor education tends to lead to crime 133
3.6 Confusing Pairs affect/effect 136
3.7 Conjunctions furthermore/however 138
3.8 Nationality Language Denmark/Danish/Danes 142
3.9 Nouns and Adjectives efficiency/efficient 144
3.10 Nouns – Countable and business/businesses 147
Uncountable
3.11 Nouns – Umbrella field/concept/factor 150
3.12 Prefixes and Suffixes undergraduate/graduation 152
3.13 Prepositions The purpose of this paper. . . 155
3.14 Punctuation “?: 158
3.15 Relative Pronouns that/which/who 161
3.16 Singular or Plural? the team is/are 164
3.17 Time Words and Phrases Since the nineteenth century. . . 166
3.18 Verbs – Formality speed up/accelerate 169
3.19 Verbs – Modal may/could/should 172
3.20 Verbs – Passives The gases were discovered. . . 175
3.21 Verbs and Prepositions concentrate on 178
3.22 Verbs of Reference Martins (1975) claimed that. . . 180
3.23 Verbs – Tenses Few scientists dispute/have disputed. . . 182

Part 4: WRITING MODELS

Student Introduction 185

4.1 Formal Letters Letter layout and letters of application 187

4.2 CVs Layout and phrasing of a curriculum 189
vitae
4.3 Reporting and Designing Surveys Questionnaire design and survey reports 191
4.4 Taking Ideas from Sources The note-making and paraphrasing 194
process
4.5 Comparison Essay A comparison of classroom learning with 197
internet-based teaching
4.6 Discussion Essay Education is the most important factor in 199
national development – Discuss

Writing Tests 201

Answers 204
Sources 259
Introduction
Academic Writing is for international students studying
in colleges and universities where courses are taught in
English. Those students who are not native speakers of
English often find the written demands of their courses
very challenging. In addition to learning academic English
they need to adopt new conventions of style, referencing
and layout.
Students usually have to complete a variety of writing
tasks during their studies, ranging from short IELTS
essays to lengthy dissertations. This writing may be done
either under exam pressure or as coursework. In addition,
the type of writing they are asked to do depends on the
subject they are studying: future lawyers will be given
quite different tasks from potential pharmacists.
Academic Writing recognises this variety of needs. It is a
flexible course that allows students of all subjects and
levels, from foundation to PhD, to practise those aspects
of writing which are most important for their studies. The
book is organised to provide maximum hands-on practice
for students. They can work either with a teacher or by
themselves, since the structure of the book has been made
as simple as possible to allow them to find what they want
quickly.
Academic Writing is divided into four parts. In Parts 1 and
2 the focus is on key writing skills, while Parts 3 and 4
offer revision and reference. Parts 2 and 3 are organised
alphabetically for easy access.
Part 1: The Writing Process guides students from the
initial stage of understanding the essay title, through note-
making and paraphrasing, to the organisation of the essay
and finally proof-reading.
Part 2: Elements of Writing deals with the skills that are
needed for most types of assignment, such as making
comparisons, giving examples and describing graphs.
Part 3: Accuracy in Writing gives remedial practice in
those areas that students often find confusing, such as
using articles, passives or prepositions.
Part 4: Writing Models offers examples of the types of
writing that students commonly need, including letters
and survey reports as well as essays.
There is also a Writing Tests section for checking progress.
The four parts are divided into sixty-one short units
which teach practical writing skills and revise common
difficulties. Each unit contains exercises, and a
comprehensive answer key is given at the end. A system
of cross-referencing helps students link related units
together.
viii Introduction

Although every effort has been made to make Academic

Writing as clear and accurate as possible, I would welcome
comment or criticism from either teachers or students.
Stephen Bailey
[email protected]

Instructions to students are printed like this:

Complete sentences with suitable words from the box
below.

Cross-references in margins look like this:

cross-reference

2.11 References and

Quotations

This means: refer to the unit on references and

quotations in Part 2 (Unit 11)
Acknowledgements
I would like to thank the many staff and students at
the Centre for English Language Education (CELE) at
The University of Nottingham who have piloted these
materials, and in particular my colleagues Ann Smith,
Janet Sanders, John Rabone and Sandra Haywood for their
help in unravelling some of the finer points of academic
language.
My wife, Rene, deserves my warmest thanks for her
unfailing support, advice and encouragement during the
project’s development.
The authors and publishers wish to thank the following
for permission to reproduce photographs and other
copyright material in this book.
Corel 76 (NT) p. 39; Corel 102 (NT) p. 128; Corel 392 (NT)
p. 159; Corel 631 (NT) p. 44; Corel 787 (NT) p. 54; Joe
Cornish/Digital Vision LL (NT) p. 50; Illustrated London
News V1 (NT) p. 74; Illustrated London News V2 (NT)
p. 4; Photodisc 31 (NT) p. 108; Photodisc 41 (NT) p. 61;
Photodisc 46 (NT) pp. 74, 111; Photodisc 71 (NT) p. 12;
Photodisc 72 (NT) p. 24; Stockbyte 31 (NT) p. 79.
Every effort has been made to contact copyright holders
and the publishers apologise to anyone whose rights have
been inadvertently overlooked and will be happy to rectify
any errors or omissions.

Teachers and lecturers using this book with a class

will be able to find extra teaching material within the
teacher resources section of the Routledge website at
http://www.routledge.com/education.
1. The Writing Process

Student Introduction
Most academic courses in English-medium colleges and
universities use essays or other written tasks to assess students’
work. These can be done as coursework, when a deadline of one
or two months may be given, or in exams, when an essay often
has to be finished in an hour.
The process of writing essays for coursework can be shown as a
flowchart:
Understand essay title/requirements
Assess reading texts – choose most suitable
Select relevant areas of texts – keep record for references
Make notes on relevant areas, using paraphrasing and
summarising skills
Combine a variety of sources where necessary
Select suitable structure for essay – make plan
Organise and write main body
Organise and write introduction
Organise and write conclusion
Critically read and rewrite where necessary
Final proof-reading

Part 1, The Writing Process, examines each of these stages in turn.

If students are concerned only with preparing for exam writing
they could miss out the reading and note-making stages, but if
they have enough time they should work through every unit,
preferably in the order given, since each stage builds on the
previous one.
Although it is essential to learn the basic writing process, at the
same time it is useful to be aware of the elements that contribute
to good academic writing. When writing an introduction, for
example, it is helpful to know how to write a definition, and
so students working on Introductions (unit 1.14) should use the
cross-reference boxes to look at the unit on Definitions in unit 2.5.
1.1 Background to Writing
Most university and college students are assessed through the
production of written assignments. Some of the terms used to
describe different types of assignments can be confusing. In addition,
students need to be clear about the basic components of written
texts. This unit provides an introduction to these topics.

1. Below are the most common types of written work produced

or used by students.
Complete the table to show the main purpose of each, and their
usual approximate length.

Type Purpose Length

letter for formal and informal usually fewer than 500
communication words
notes

report

project

essay

thesis/dissertation

article/paper

2. Organisation of texts.
a) Explain the following terms in italics:
Shorter texts, e.g. essays, are normally organised:
Introduction > Main Body > Conclusion
Longer texts, e.g. dissertations and articles, may include
(depending on subject area):
Abstract > Contents > Introduction > Main Body > Case Study
> Discussion > Findings > Conclusion > Acknowledgements >
Bibliography/References > Appendices
Books may also contain:
Dedication > Foreword > Preface > Index
b) Match the definitions below to one of the terms in (2a).
i) Short summary (100–200 words) of the writer’s
purpose and findings (......)
ii) Section where various people who assisted
the writer are thanked (......)
4 The Writing Process: Writing Foundations

iii) Final part where extra data, too detailed for

the main text, are stored (......)
iv) List of all the books that the writer has
consulted (......)
v) Section looking at a particular example, relevant
to the main topic (......)
vi) Introductory part of the book which may give the
writer’s motives (......)
vii) Alphabetical list of all topics in the text (......)
cross-reference 3. Other text features
3.1 Abbreviations Abbreviations are often used to save space:
2.11 References and
Quotations Call centres (CCs) feature prominently in the technology
3.14 Punctuation mix . . .
Italics are used to show titles and words from other languages:
Where once the titles of Armchair Theatre and The
Wednesday Play celebrated . . .
Squatter housing (called gecekondu in Turkish) . . .
Footnotes are used to indicate references at the bottom of the
page:
In respect of Singapore the consensus is that the
government has made a difference.3
Endnotes are given to show references at the end of the article
or chapter:
The market for masonry construction may be divided into
housing and non-housing sectors [1].
 1.1 Background to Writing 5

Quotation marks are used to draw attention to a phrase,

perhaps because it is being used in an unusual or new way:
The research shows that the ‘pains of imprisonment’ for
women are . . .
4. All types of writing consist of a number of key elements.
Label the italic items in the text.
a) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . THE ORIGINS OF THE INDUSTRIAL
REVOLUTION
b) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Introduction
c) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . It is generally agreed that the Industrial
Revolution began in Britain during
the eighteenth century, with
significant developments in the iron,
steel and textile industries. But it is
less clear what caused this sudden
increase in production in key areas;
different writers have examined the
availability of capital, the growth of
urban populations and the political
d) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . and religious climate. All of these may
have played a part, but first it is necessary
to consider the precise nature of what is
meant by ‘industrial revolution’.
e) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Industry had existed for thousands of
years prior to the eighteenth century,
but before this time society as a whole
remained agricultural. With the arrival
of the ironworks and cotton mills whole
towns were dominated by industrial
activity. At the same time, agriculture
itself went through significant changes
which produced more food for the growing
urban population.
cross-reference 5. Why are all texts divided into paragraphs? How long are
1.12 Organising Paragraphs paragraphs?
Read the following text, from the introduction to an essay, and
divide it into a suitable number of paragraphs.
INVESTMENT
Most people want to invest for the future, to cover unexpected
financial difficulties and provide them with security. Different
people, however, tend to have different requirements, so that
a 25-year-old just leaving university would be investing for the
long term, whereas a 60-year-old who had just retired would
probably invest for income. Despite these differences, certain
principles apply in most cases. The first issue to consider is
6 The Writing Process: Writing Foundations

risk. In general, the greater the degree of risk in investment,

the higher the return. Shares, for example, which can quickly
rise or fall in value, typically have a higher yield than bonds,
which offer good security but only pay about 5%. Therefore
all investors must decide how much risk is appropriate in their
particular situation. Diversification must also be considered
in an investment strategy. Wise investors usually seek to
spread their investments across a variety of geographical
and business sectors. As accurate predictions of the future
are almost impossible, it is best to have as many options
as possible. A further consideration is investor involvement.
Some investors opt for a high degree of involvement and want
to buy and sell regularly, constantly watching the markets.
Others want to invest and then forget about it. Personal
involvement can be time-consuming and worrying, and
many prefer to leave the management of their portfolios to
professional fund managers.
 1.2 Avoiding Plagiarism
All students have to face the issue of plagiarism. Plagiarism means
taking information or ideas from another writer and using them in
your own work, without acknowledging the source in an accepted
manner. In academic work plagiarism can be a serious offence. This
unit outlines the situation, but to fully avoid plagiarism students need
to master the skills practised in units 1.6–1.10.

cross-reference
1. Which of the following would be considered as plagiarism?
2.11 References and a) Not providing a reference when you have used
Quotations somebody’s idea.
3.22 Verbs of Reference
b) Copying a few sentences from an article on the internet
without giving a reference.
c) Not giving a reference when you use commonly accepted
ideas, e.g. Aids is a growing problem.
d) Giving the reference but not using quotation marks when
you take a sentence from another writer’s article.
e) Taking a paragraph from a classmate’s essay without
giving a reference.
f) Presenting the results of your own research.
2. To avoid plagiarism, and also to save having lengthy
quotations in your work, it is necessary to paraphrase and
summarise the original. Instead of this, students sometimes
hope that changing a few words of the original will avoid
charges of plagiarism. Clearly, you are not expected to alter
every word of the original text, but your summary must be
substantially different from the original.
Read the following extract on twentieth-century educational
developments from Age of Extremes by E. Hobsbawm:
Almost as dramatic as the decline and fall of the
peasantry, and much more universal, was the rise of
the occupations which required secondary and higher
education. Universal primary education, i.e. basic literacy,
was indeed the aspiration of virtually all governments, so
much so that by the late 1980s only the most honest or
helpless states admitted to having as many as half their
population illiterate, and only ten – all but Afghanistan in
Africa – were prepared to concede that less than 20% of
their population could read or write. (Hobsbawm, 1994, p.
295)
Which of the following are plagiarised and which are
acceptable?
a) Almost as dramatic as the decline and fall of the
peasantry, and much more general, was the rise of
the professions which required secondary and higher
education. Primary education for all, i.e. basic literacy,
8 The Writing Process: Writing Foundations

was indeed the aspiration of almost all governments,

so much so that by the late 1980s only the most
honest countries confessed to having as many as
half their population illiterate, and only ten – all but
Afghanistan in Africa – were prepared to admit that
less than 20% of their population could read or write.
(Hobsbawm, 1994, p. 295)
b) Nearly as dramatic as the decline of the peasantry
was the rise of professions which required secondary
and higher education. Primary education for everyone
(basic literacy) was the aspiration of nearly all
governments, so that by the late 1980s only the very
honest countries confessed to having as many as half
their population illiterate. Only ten (African) countries
conceded that less than 20% of their population were
literate. (Hobsbawm, 1994, p. 295)
c) As Hobsbawm (1994) argues, there was a marked
increase in jobs needing secondary or higher
education during the twentieth century. All but a few
nations claimed that the majority of their people were
literate. Universal primary education i.e. basic literacy
was indeed the aspiration of virtually all governments.
(p. 295)
d) There was a sharp and widespread increase in
occupations requiring education above primary level.
All governments set out to provide basic education,
essentially literacy, for their people. By the end of the
1980s very few states would admit that the majority
of their population were unable to read. (Hobsbawm,
1994, p. 295)
3. What makes the difference between plagiarised and acceptable
work? List your ideas below.

Acceptable Plagiarised
Some vocabulary kept from original
1.3 From Titles to Outlines
Most written work begins with a title, and students must be quite
clear what question the title is asking before starting to plan the
essay and read around the topic. This unit deals with analysing titles
and making basic essay outlines.

1. When preparing to write an essay, it is essential to identify

the main requirements of the title. You must be clear about
what areas your teacher wants you to cover. These will then
determine the organisation of the essay. For example:
The state should play no part in the organisation of
industry – discuss.
Here the key word is discuss. Discussing involves
examining the benefits and drawbacks of something.
Underline the key words in the following titles and consider
what they are asking you to do.
a) Define information technology (IT) and outline its
main applications in medicine.
b) Compare and contrast the appeal process in the legal
systems of Britain and the USA.
c) Evaluate the effect of mergers in the motor industry in
the last ten years.
d) Trace the development of primary education in one
country. Illustrate some of the issues currently facing
this sector.
Note that most of the titles above have two terms in the
title. You must decide how much importance to give to
each section of the essay: e.g. title (a) might require 10%
for the definition and 90% for the explanation.
2. The following terms are also commonly used in essay titles.
Match the terms to the definitions on the right.
Analyse Give a clear and simple account
Describe Make a proposal and support it
Examine Deal with a complex subject by giving
the main points
State Divide into sections and discuss each
critically
Suggest Give a detailed account
Summarise Look at the various parts and their
relationships
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