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 Quantitative Psychological Research

Quantitative Psychological Research: The Complete Student's Companion expertly guides the reader
through all the stages involved in undertaking quantitative psychological research: designing a study,
choosing a sample of people, undertaking the study, analysing the data, and reporting the research.
Accessibly written and clearly presented, the book is designed for anyone learning to conduct
quantitative psychological research. It covers the full research process, from the original idea to
reporting the completed study, emphasising the importance of looking beyond statistical significance in
evaluating data. The book provides step-by-step guidance on choosing, interpreting and reporting the
appropriate analysis, featuring worked examples and extended calculations as appendices for advanced
readers.
This edition features new chapters on exploratory factor analysis, logistic regression and Bayesian
statistics, and has been thoroughly updated throughout to reflect the latest research practices. Care has
been taken to avoid tying the book to any specific statistical software, providing readers with a thorough
grounding in the basics no matter which package they go on to use.
Whether you’re at the beginning of your undergraduate degree or working towards your masters
or doctorate, this book will be invaluable for anyone looking to understand how to conduct quantitative
psychological research.

David Clark-Carter is Professor of Psychological Research Methods at Staffordshire University and

Consultant Editor of the British Journal of Mathematical and Statistical Psychology. In 2016 he was
awarded the lifetime achievement award by the Education and Public Engagement Board of the British
Psychological Society.
Quantitative
Psychological Research
The Complete Student’s Companion

4th Edition

David Clark-Carter
Fourth edition published 2019
by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN
and by Routledge
52 Vanderbilt Avenue, New York, NY 10017
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© 2019 David Clark-Carter
The right of David Clark-Carter to be identified as author of this work has been asserted by him in
accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by
any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying
and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from
the publishers.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are
used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe.
First edition published by Psychology Press 1997
Third edition published by Psychology Press 2010
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Clark-Carter, David, author.
Title: Quantitative psychological research : the complete student’s companion / David Clark-Carter.
Description: 4th Edition. | New York : Routledge, 2019. | Series: Revised edition of the author’s
Quantitative psychological research, 2009. | Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2018029146 (print) | LCCN 2018030791 (ebook) | ISBN 9781315398129 (ePub) |
ISBN 9781315398136 (Web PDF) | ISBN 9781315398112 (Mobipocket) | ISBN 9781138226173
(hardback) | ISBN 9781138226180 (pbk.) | ISBN 9781315398143 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Psychology—Research—Methodology—Textbooks.
Classification: LCC BF76.5 (ebook) | LCC BF76.5 .C53 2019 (print) | DDC 150.72—dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2018029146
ISBN: 978-1-138-22617-3 (hbk)
ISBN: 978-1-138-22618-0 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-315-39814-3 (ebk)

Typeset in Minion
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Visit the eResources: www.routledge.com/9781138226180

To Anne, Tim and Rebecca
 Brief contents

Preface xviii
Acknowledgements xxii

PART 1 INTRODUCTION 1

CHAPTER 1 The methods used in psychological research 2

PART 2 CHOICE OF TOPIC, MEASURES AND RESEARCH DESIGN 17

CHAPTER 2 The preliminary stages of research 18

CHAPTER 3 Variables and the validity of research designs 31

CHAPTER 4 Research designs and their internal validity 41

PART 3 METHODS 63

CHAPTER 5 Asking questions I: interviews and surveys 64

CHAPTER 6 Asking questions II: measuring attitudes and meaning 76

CHAPTER 7 Observation and content analysis 86

PART 4 DATA AND ANALYSIS 93

CHAPTER 8 Scales of measurement 94

CHAPTER 9 Summarising and describing data 100

CHAPTER 10 Going beyond description 127

CHAPTER 11 Samples and populations 135

viii   Brief contents

CHAPTER 12 Analysis of differences between a single sample

and a population 144

CHAPTER 13 Effect size and power 159

CHAPTER 14 Parametric and non-parametric tests 166

CHAPTER 15 Analysis of differences between two levels of an

independent variable 174

CHAPTER 16 Preliminary analysis of designs with one independent

variable with more than two levels 195

CHAPTER 17 Analysis of designs with more than one independent

variable 215

CHAPTER 18 Subsequent analysis after ANOVA or χ2 231

CHAPTER 19 Analysis of relationships I: correlation 255

CHAPTER 20 Analysis of relationships II: linear regression 284

CHAPTER 21 Analysis of relationships III: logistic regression 308

CHAPTER 22 Analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) 320

CHAPTER 23 Screening data 334

CHAPTER 24 Exploratory factor analysis (EFA) 341

CHAPTER 25 Multivariate analysis 354

CHAPTER 26 Meta-analysis 364

CHAPTER 27 Bayesian statistics 374

PART 5 SHARING THE RESULTS 381

CHAPTER 28 Reporting research 382

 Brief contents   ix

APPENDICES 401
Appendix I: Descriptive statistics (linked to Chapter 9) 402
Appendix II: Sampling and confidence intervals for proportions
(linked to Chapter 11) 411
Appendix III: Comparing a sample with a population (linked to Chapter 12) 416
Appendix IV: The power of a one-group z-test (linked to Chapter 13) 422
Appendix V: Data transformation and goodness-of-fit tests
(linked to Chapter 14) 425
Appendix VI: Seeking differences between two levels of an independent
variable (linked to Chapter 15) 432
Appendix VII: Seeking differences between more than two levels
of an independent variable (linked to Chapter 16) 456
Appendix VIII: Analysis of designs with more than one independent
variable (linked to Chapter 17) 476
Appendix IX: Subsequent analysis after ANOVA or χ2 (linked to Chapter 18) 489
Appendix X: Correlation and reliability (linked to Chapter 19) 505
Appendix XI: Linear regression (linked to Chapter 20) 529
Appendix XII: Logistic regression (linked to Chapter 21) 546
Appendix XIII: ANCOVA (linked to Chapter 22) 562
Appendix XIV: Evaluation of measures: item and discriminative analysis,
and accuracy of tests (linked to Chapter 6) 567
Appendix XV: Exploratory factor analysis (linked to Chapter 24) 571
Appendix XVI: Meta-analysis (linked to Chapter 26) 578
Appendix XVII: Probability tables 591
Appendix XVIII: Power tables 633
Appendix XIX: Miscellaneous tables 688
References 697
Glossary of symbols 705
Author index 706
Subject index 709
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