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 2022

Handbook
Our Handbook
The ARRL Handbook for Radio Communications is your TABLE OF CONTENTS

Handbook
complete guide to radio experimentation, discovery,
and innovation. It is the Handbook — written by radio Introduction
THE ARRL
amateurs for everyone with a desire to advance the What is Amateur (Ham) Radio?
pursuit of wireless technology.

THE ARRL
Fundamental Theory
Electrical Fundamentals
Key Topics Radio Fundamentals

• Radio electronics theory and principles

Circuits and Components

•
FOR RADIO COMMUNICATIONS
Circuit design and equipment construction Practical Design and Principles
• Radio signal transmission and propagation RF Techniques
• Digital and analog modulation and protocols Computer-Aided Circuit Design

• Antennas and transmission lines Power Sources

•
DSP and SDR Fundamentals
Safe electrical, construction, and RF practices Oscillators and Synthesizers
Analog and Digital Filtering
Always Updated! New Projects and Content… Modulation
Receiving
• 3D printing for ham radio construction Transmitting
• Downloadable 3D printing projects and articles Transceiver Design Topics

• Battery selection for portable operation Digital Protocols and Modes

•
Amateur Radio Data Platforms
Downloadable article — using SDR for RFI tracking
•
RF Power Amplifiers
Solid-state linear amplifier linearity Repeaters
• Safe practices for antenna and tower work
• Downloadable crystal test oscillator Antenna Systems

• Updated CAD software from Tonnesoft

and Radio Propagation
Propagation of Radio Signals
Transmission Lines
Download Included: eBook and Supplemental Content Antennas
Download the fully searchable digital edition of the
Station Construction,
printed book, as well as expanded supplemental
Maintenance, and Management
content, software, PC board templates, and other Component Data and References
support files. Construction Techniques
Assembling a Station

COMMUNICATIONS
FOR RADIO
System Requirements: Windows 7, 8, or 10; Windows Vista Test Equipment
and Measurements
or Windows XP, as well as Macintosh systems, using Troubleshooting and Maintenance
Adobe Acrobat Reader software. Acrobat Reader is a free RF Interference
download at www.adobe.com. PDF files are Linux readable. Safe Practices
Other included software is Windows compatible only.
Downloadable Content

About ARRL Space Communications

Digital Communications
Image Communications
ARRL is the national membership association for amateur
Digital Basics
radio operators in the US. ARRL has books, software, online Station Accessories and Projects
content, and other resources for licensing, operating, and Annual Transceiver Survey
lifelong learning.

Published by

2022 ®
225 Main Street, Newington, CT 06111-1400 USA Ninety-ninth
www.arrl.org USA $49.95 ARRL Item No. 1502 Edition

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Introduction to the Downloadable Supplemental Content
The ARRL Handbook For Radio Communications
Using the downloadable Supplemental Content

The downloadable Supplemental Content of the ARRL Handbook includes:

1. Complete text, drawings, tables, illustrations and photographs of the print edition in searchable PDF
format.
2. Supplemental files for most chapters including articles from QST, QEX and other sources, material
from previous editions of the ARRL Handbook, tables and figures in support of the chapter material,
and files that contain PC board layout and other design information to build and test the projects
provided in the chapters. The supplemental information is arranged in folders for each chapter.
3. Companion Software (Windows compatible only)

"ADOBE® ACROBAT® READER® DC (ADOBE READER®) (not included) must be installed on your computer to
access the content and features of the ARRL Handbook. Adobe Reader software is required to view the PDF
files from the Supplemental Content. Versions for both Windows and Macintosh are available from
Adobe.com. Adobe Reader is not installed with the ARRL Handbook but may be downloaded from
Adobe.com.

Full Text Searching of the ARRL Handbook Text

Full-text searching is available with Adobe Reader and is very useful for finding specific text within the ARRL
Handbook. Search may be performed in the current chapter only or in the entire book. Different Adobe Reader
versions may have somewhat different methods of accessing and using the full-text search functionality.

Following is a summary of how to access Full Text Search (also known as “Search” or “Advanced Search”) in
supported versions of Adobe Reader. Adobe Reader versions prior to Version 10 are not supported. Consult
Adobe and Adobe Reader Help files for complete information. Reference the following table for a summary of
how to access Advanced Search in recent versions of Adobe Reader.

Version From Toolbar From Menu From Keyboard Note

Adobe Acrobat Click on the “Binocular” icon Select Edit > SHIFT+CTRL+F If “Binocular” icon is not displayed on
Reader DC (for “Advanced Search”). Advanced Search Toolbar: Right click on Toolbar and
(Ver. 2020 to 2021) From here select desired select Show Edit Tools > Advanced
options (see also “Show Search.
More Options”). See Note.
Adobe Acrobat Click on the “Binocular” icon Select Edit > SHIFT+CTRL+F If “Binocular” icon is not displayed on
Reader DC (for “Advanced Search”). Advanced Search Toolbar: Right click on Toolbar and
(Ver. 2015 to 2019) From here select desired select Edit > Advanced Search.
options (see also “Show
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(Ver. 11.0) From here select desired Advanced Search Toolbar: Right click on Toolbar and
options (see also “Show select Edit > Advanced Search.
More Options”). See Note.
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(Ver. 10.0) (for “Advanced Search”). Advanced Search Toolbar: Right click on Toolbar and
From here select desired select Edit > Advanced Search.
options see also “Show More
Options” at bottom). See
Note.
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(Ver. 9.0)* From here select desired Search Toolbar: Right click on Toolbar and
options (see also “Show select “More Tools”, then in the “File
More Options”). See Note. Toolbar” section check the box for
“Search.”
*Provided for reference only. Adobe Reader Version 9 is not supported at time of publication.
Text Search Example

This example will find all instances of the word “resistance” throughout the ARRL Handbook. It is based on
Adobe Acrobat Reader DC (2021 Release) but other versions may be similar.

Open the ARRL Handbook Contents in Adobe Reader and then access “Advanced Search” from the Toolbar,
Menu or Keyboard as described in the table above. In the “Search” dialog answer the question “Where would
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1. In the current document – if this is selected the currently selected chapter or section in the ARRL
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2. All PDF Documents in – if this is selected and a target location identified all PDF documents in that folder
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3. In the Index named Index.pdx – If this is selected the full-text search index (or catalog index) to
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After selecting one of the above options type a search word(s) in the text box “What word or phrase would you
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application will search for all instances of the word “resistance” and present a list showing all chapters
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Note that in “Advanced Search” there is also a “Show More Options” selection at the bottom. Selecting this
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For this example check the “Stemming” checkbox and redo the search for “resistance”. Again select Chapter 2
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To again limit the search to exact matches for “resistance” uncheck the stemming checkbox and redo the
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Full Text Search is a very powerful and flexible capability. To further explore its features consult Adobe
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 2022
The ARRL

HANDBOOK
FOR RADIO COMMUNICATIONS
NINETY-NINTH EDITION

Editor Additional Contributors

H. Ward Silver, NØAX to the 2021 Edition
Fred Brown, W6HPH
Contributing Editors Jim Duffey, KK6MC
Steven R. Ford, WB8IMY Lou Ernst, WA2GKH
Mark J. Wilson, K1RO Steve Franke, K9AN
Dick Frey, K4XU
Technical Consultants Doug Grant, K1DG
Bob Allison, WB1GCM Alan Higbie, KØAV
Edward F. Hare, Jr., W1RFI Jim Idelson, K1IR
Zachary H.J. Lau, W1VT Rick Lindquist, WW1ME
Carl Luetzelschwab, K9LA
Cover Design Doc Murphy, KØGRM
Lori Pedrick John Portune, W6NBC
Warren Pratt, NRØV
Production Rob Sherwood, NCØB
Jodi Morin, KA1JPA Cory Sickles, WA3UVV
Michelle Bloom, WB1ENT Joe Taylor, K1JT
David F. Pingree, N1NAS Tom Thompson, WØIVJ
Jim Tonne, W4ENE
Editorial Assistant Paul Wade, W1GHZ
Maty Weinberg, KB1EIB

Published by:

225 Main Street, Newington, CT 06111-1400 USA

www.arrl.org
Copyright © 2021 by
The American Radio Relay League, Inc.

Copyright secured under the Pan-American Convention

International Copyright secured

All rights reserved. No part of this work may be

reproduced in any form except by written
permission of the publisher. All rights of
translation are reserved.

Printed in the USA

Quedan reservados todos los derechos

ISBN: Softcover ISBN 978-1-62595-150-2

ISBN: 6-volume set ISBN 978-1-62595-151-9

Ninety-Ninth Edition

Kindle ebook editions are based on the 2019 edition of

The ARRL Handbook For Radio Communications
   ISBN: 978-1-62595-091-8 — Volume 1
   ISBN: 978-1-62595-092-5 — Volume 2
   ISBN: 978-1-62595-093-2 — Volume 3
   ISBN: 978-1-62595-094-9 — Volume 4
   ISBN: 978-1-62595-095-6 — Volume 5
   ISBN: 978-1-62595-096-3 — Volume 6
 Contents
A more detailed Table of Contents is included at the
beginning of each chapter.

INTRODUCTION 4 Circuits and Components

1 What is Amateur (Ham) Radio? 4.1 Practical Resistors
1.1 Do-It-Yourself Wireless 4.2 Practical Capacitors
1.2 Joining the Ham Radio Community 4.3 Practical Inductors
1.3 Your Ham Radio Station 4.4 Transformers
1.4 Getting on the Air 4.5 Practical Semiconductors
1.5 Your Ham Radio “Lifestyle” 4.6 Amplifiers
1.6 Public Service 4.7 Operational Amplifiers
1.7 Ham Radio in the Classroom 4.8 Miscellaneous Analog ICs
1.8 Resources 4.9 Analog-Digital Interfacing
1.9 Glossary 4.10 Analog Device and Circuits Glossary
4.11 Heat Management
FUNDAMENTAL THEORY 4.12 References and Bibliography
2 Electrical Fundamentals PRACTICAL DESIGN AND PRINCIPLES
2.1 Introduction to Electricity
2.2 Resistance and Conductance 5 RF Techniques
2.3 Basic Circuit Principles 5.1 Introduction
2.4 Power and Energy 5.2 Lumped-Element versus Distributed
2.5 Circuit Control Components   Characteristics
2.6 Capacitance and Capacitors 5.3 Effects of Parasitic (Stray) Characteristics
2.7 Inductance and Inductors 5.4 Semiconductor Circuits at RF
2.8 Semiconductor Devices 5.5 Ferrite Materials
2.9 References and Bibliography 5.6 Impedance Matching Networks
5.7 RF Transformers
3 Radio Fundamentals 5.8 Noise
3.1 AC Waveforms 5.9 Two-Port Networks
3.2 Measuring AC Voltage, Current and Power 5.10 RF Design Techniques Glossary
3.3 Effective Radiated Power 5.11 References and Bibliography
3.4 AC in Capacitors and Inductors
3.5 Working with Reactance 6 Computer-Aided Circuit Design
3.6 Impedance 6.1 Circuit Simulation Overview
3.7 Quality Factor (Q) of Components 6.2 Simulation Basics
3.8 Resonant Circuits 6.3 Limitations of Simulation at RF
3.9 Analog Signal Processing 6.4 Electromagnetic Analysis of RF Circuits
3.10 Electromagnetic Waves 6.5 References and Bibliography
3.11 References and Bibliography
7 Power Sources 11 Modulation
7.1 Power Processing 11.1 Introduction
7.2 AC-AC Power Conversion 11.2 Amplitude Modulation (AM)
7.3 Power Transformers 11.3 Angle Modulation
7.4 AC-DC Power Conversion 11.4 FSK and PSK
7.5 Voltage Multipliers 11.5 Quadrature Modulation
7.6 Current Multipliers 11.6 Analytic Signals and Modulation
7.7 Rectifier Types 11.7 Image Modulation
7.8 Power Filtering 11.8 Spread Spectrum Modulation
7.9 Power Supply Regulation 11.9 Pulse Modulation
7.10 “Crowbar” Protective Circuits 11.10 Modulation Bandwidth and Impairments
7.11 DC-DC Switchmode Power Conversion 11.11 References and Bibliography
7.12 High-Voltage Techniques
7.13 Batteries 12 Receiving
7.14 Glossary of Power Source Terms 12.1 Characterizing Receivers
7.15 References and Bibliography 12.2 Heterodyne Receivers
7.16 Power Supply Projects 12.3 SDR Receivers
12.4 Mixing and Mixers
8 DSP and SDR Fundamentals 12.5 Demodulation and Detection
8.1 Introduction to DSP 12.6 Automatic Gain Control (AGC)
8.2 Introduction to SDR 12.7 Noise Management
8.3 Analog-Digital Conversion 12.8 References and Bibliography
8.4 Data Converters for SDR and DSP
8.5 Digital Signal Processors 13 Transmitting
8.6 Digital (Discrete-time) Signals 13.1 Characterizing Transmitters
8.7 The Fourier Transform 13.2 Transmitter Architecture
8.8 Glossary of DSP and SDR Terms 13.3 Modulators
8.9 References and Bibliography 13.4 Transmitting CW
13.5 Transmitting AM and SSB
9 Oscillators and Synthesizers 13.6 Transmitting Angle Modulation
9.1 How Oscillators Work 13.7 Effects of Transmitted Noise
9.2 LC Variable Frequency Oscillator 13.8 Microphones and Speech Processing
(VFO) Circuits 13.9 Voice Operation
9.3 Building an Oscillator 13.10 Transmitter Power Stages
9.4 Crystal Oscillators 13.11 References and Bibliography
9.5 Oscillators at UHF and Above
9.6 Frequency Synthesizers 14 Transceiver Design Topics
9.7 Phase Noise 14.1 Signal Chains in SDR Transceivers
9.8 Glossary of Oscillator and 14.2 User Interfaces
Synthesizer Terms 14.3 Configuration and Control Interfaces
9.9 References and Bibliography 14.4 SDR Design Tools
14.5 Transverters
10 Analog and Digital Filtering
10.1 Introduction 15 Digital Protocols and Modes
10.2 Filter Basics 15.1 Digital “Modes”
10.3 Passive LC Filters 15.2 Unstructured Digital Modes
10.4 Active Audio Filters 15.3 Fuzzy Modes
10.5 Digital Filters 15.4 Structured Digital Modes
10.6 Quartz Crystal Filters 15.5 Networking Modes
10.7 SAW Filters 15.6 Digital Mode Table
10.8 Transmission Line 15.7 Glossary of Digital Protocol and Mode Terms
VHF/UHF/Microwave Filters 15.8 References and Bibliography
10.9 Helical Resonators
10.11 Filter Projects
10.12 Glossary of Filter Terms
10.13 References and Bibliography
16 Amateur Radio Data Platforms 20 Transmission Lines
16.1 Platform Overview 20.1 Transmission Line Basics
16.2 Sensors 20.2 Transmission Lines — Practical Considerations
16.3 Navigation Data and Telemetry 20.3 The Transmission Line as Impedance
16.4 Payloads Transformer
16.5 High Altitude Balloon Platforms 20.4 Matching Impedances in the Antenna
16.6 Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) System
16.7 Rockets 20.5 Baluns and Transmission-Line
16.8 Robotics Transformers
16.9 Fixed Stations 20.6 PC Transmission Lines
16.10 References and Bibliography 20.7 Waveguides
20.8 Glossary of Transmission Line Terms
17 RF Power Amplifiers 20.9 References and Bibliography
17.1 High Power, Who Needs It?
17.2 Types of Power Amplifiers 21 Antennas
17.3 Vacuum Tube Basics 21.1 Antenna Basics
17.4 Tank Circuits 21.2 Dipoles and the Half-Wave Antenna
17.5 Transmitting Tube Ratings 21.3 Vertical (Ground-Plane) Antennas
17.6 Sources of Operating Voltages 21.4 T and Inverted-L Antennas
17.7 Tube Amplifier Cooling 21.5 Slopers and Vertical Dipoles
17.8 Vacuum Tube Amplifier Stabilization 21.6 Yagi Antennas
17.9 MOSFET Design for RF Amplifiers 21.7 Quad and Loop Antennas
17.10 Solid-State RF Amplifiers 21.8 HF Mobile Antennas
17.11 Solid-State Amplifiers and 21.9 VHF/UHF Mobile Antennas
Intermodulation Distortion 21.10 VHF/UHF Antennas
17.12 References and Bibliography 21.11 VHF/UHF Beams
21.12 Radio Direction Finding Antennas
18 Repeaters 21.13 Rotators
18.1 A Brief History 21.14 Glossary
18.2 Repeater Overview 21.15 References and Bibliography
18.3 FM Voice Repeaters
18.4 D-STAR Repeater Systems STATION CONSTRUCTION,
18.5 Digital Mobile Radio (DMR) MAINTENANCE, AND MANAGEMENT
18.6 System Fusion 22 Component Data and References
18.7 Other Digital Voice Repeater Technologies 22.1 Component Data
18.8 References and Bibliography 22.2 Resistors
22.3 Capacitors
ANTENNA SYSTEMS AND 22.4 Inductors
RADIO PROPAGATION 22.5 Transformers
19 Propagation of Radio Signals 22.6 Semiconductors
19.1 Fundamentals of Radio Waves 22.7 Tubes, Wire, Materials, Attenuators,
19.2 Sky-Wave Propagation and the Sun Miscellaneous
19.3 MUF Predictions 22.8 Computer Connectors
19.4 Propagation in the Troposphere 22.9 AC and Power Connectors
19.5 VHF/UHF Mobile Propagation 22.10 RF Connectors and Transmission Lines
19.6 Propagation for Space Communications
19.7 Noise and Propagation 23 Construction Techniques
19.8 Propagation Below the AM 23.1 Electronic Shop Safety
Broadcast Band 23.2 Tools and Their Use
19.9 Glossary of Radio Propagation Terms 23.3 Soldering Tools and Techniques
19.10 References and Bibliography 23.4 Surface Mount Technology (SMT)
23.5 Constructing Electronic Circuits
23.6 CAD for PCB Design
23.7 Microwave Construction
23.8 Mechanical Fabrication
23.9 3D Printing
24 Assembling a Station 27 RF Interference
24.1 Fixed Stations 27.1 Managing Radio Frequency Interference
24.2 Mobile Installations 27.2 FCC Rules and Regulations
24.3 Portable Installations 27.3 Elements of RFI
24.4 Remote Stations 27.4 Identifying the Type of RFI Source
27.5 Locating Sources of RFI
25 Test Equipment and Measurements 27.6 Power-Line Noise
25.1 Introduction 27.7 Elements of RFI Control
25.2 DC Measurements 27.8 Troubleshooting RFI
25.3 AC Measurements 27.9 Automotive RFI
25.4 RF Measurements 27.10 RFI Projects
25.5 Receiver Measurements 27.11 Glossary of RFI Terms
25.6 Transmitter Measurements 27.12 References and Bibliography
25.7 Antenna System Measurements
25.8 Miscellaneous Measurements 28 Safe Practices
25.9 Construction Projects 28.1 Electrical Safety
25.10 Glossary of Test Equipment and 28.2 Antenna and Tower Safety
    Measurement Terms 28.3 RF Safety

26 Troubleshooting and Maintenance

26.1 Test Equipment Advertiser’s Index
26.2 Components Index
26.3 Getting Started Project Index
26.4 Inside the Equipment Author’s Index
26.5 Testing at the Circuit Level
26.6 After the Repairs DOWNLOADABLE CONTENT AND TOOLS
26.7 Professional Repairs Space Communications
26.8 Typical Symptoms and Faults Digital Communications
26.9 Radio Troubleshooting Hints Image Communications
26.10 Antenna Systems Digital Basics
26.11 Repair and Restoration of Vintage Station Accessories and Projects
Equipment HF Transceiver Survey
26.12 References and Bibliography Radio Mathematics
Preface
Ninety-nine editions of the book on the shelf — take this one down and pass it around!
There’s so much history in the ARRL Handbook for Radio Communication, but there is
always something new to enjoy and learn. What’s new in #99? Here are some entirely new
sections in the printed pages:
 Battery Selection for Portable Operation by James Duffey, KK6MC, will help you get
the right power source for your next adventure, whether it is to a summit or park, for
Field Day, or just getting out and about.
 3D Printing Technology for Ham Radio by Jim Portune, W6NBC, covers the basic ele-
ments of this popular do-it-yourself or “maker” technique. Jim explains how 3D printing
works, defines key terms, describes the different types of plastic to work with, and shows
you how software is used to design and create objects.
 Linearity of Solid-State Amplifiers by Rob Sherwood, NCØB; Warren Pratt, NRØV; and
Tom Thompson, WØIVJ; and Dick Frey, K4XU, digs into the details of how the new
RF power amps sound on the air. They also cover techniques for making sure you don’t
generate spurious emissions unnecessarily.
Existing print topics have been updated, as well:
 Tower safety is an important topic to anyone who climbs towers or installs antennas on
them. Jim Idelson, K1IR, of the Zero Falls Alliance, brings the Handbook up to date on
the latest safe practices.
 With Solar Cycle 25 heating up, Carl Leutzelschwab, K9LA gives us a look at how
things are going and some possibilities for what to expect in the coming year.
 Joe Taylor, K1JT, and Steve Franke, K9AN, have reworked the material on Fast and
Slow modes that are part of WSJT-X, including all of the new modes and improvements
to existing modes.
 An SDR receiver’s analog-to-digital converter (ADC) is critically important to perfor-
mance but what happens when it gets overloaded? Doug Grant, K1DG explains converter
overload for us.
There are lots of new items in the supplemental material that can be downloaded with the
book. Here are a few:
 Both the Space Communications and Digital Communications chapters have been
brought up to date by Steve Ford, WB8IMY.
 A trio of 3D-printing projects by John Portune, W6NBC, along with expanded treatment
of his print material.
 Alan Higbie, KØAV, explains how to track noise sources with a portable SDR receiver.
 Build a universal crystal test oscillator in this useful small project by Fred Brown,
W6HPH.
 Lou Ernst, WA2GKH, has contributed a pair of useful spreadsheets for training and
teaching about time constants and waveform construction.
Finally, there is a variety of software by Jim Tonne, W4ENE, including his ever-
popular ELSIE for filter design. The annual Transceiver Survey is updated with the latest
models.
We hope you’ll enjoy this edition and that it improves your amateur radio experience!
ARRL Handbook Downloadable
Supplemental Content
(print edition only)
A wealth of additional material for this Handbook is available with the downloadable supplemental
content. As a purchaser of the print edition, you are entitled to download this material, which was added to
your customer account upon purchase of the book.
Searchable Edition of The Handbook
The downloadable content includes a PDF version of this edition of The ARRL Handbook, including
text, drawings, tables, illustrations and photographs. Using Adobe Reader, you can view, print or search
the entire book.
Supplemental Files for Each Chapter
The downloadable content contains supplemental information for most chapters of this book. This in-
cludes articles from QST, QEX and other sources, material from previous editions of The ARRL Handbook,
tables and figures in support of the chapter material, and files that contain information to build and test the
projects provided in the chapters. The supplemental information is arranged in folders for each chapter.
Companion Software
The following software is also included with the downloadable supplemental content:

TubeCalculator, a Windows application by Bentley Chan and John Stanley, K4ERO, accompanies the
tube type RF power amplifier discussion in the RF Power Amplifiers chapter.

The following Windows programs by Tonne Software (www.tonnesoftware.com) are provided by Jim
Tonne, W4ENE.
ClassE — Designs single-ended Class E RF amplifiers.
Diplexer — Designs both high-pass/low-pass and band-pass/band-stop types of diplexer circuits.
Helical — Designs and analyzes helical-resonator bandpass filters for the VHF and UHF frequency
ranges.
JJSmith — A graphics-intensive transmission-line calculator based on the Smith chart.
Elsie — The free student edition of Elsie, a lumped-element filter design and analysis program.
MeterBasic — Designs and prints professional-quality analog meter scales on your printer. The full
featured version of Meter is available from Tonne Software.
OptLowpass — Designs and analyzes very efficient transmitter output low-pass filters.
PI-EL — Designs and analyzes pi-L networks for transmitter output.
Pizza — A mapping program that generates printable azimuth-equidistant or rectangular maps showing
the great-circle path and the sunrise-sunset terminator between your location and selectable locations.
QuadNet — Designs and analyzes active quadrature (“90-degree”) networks for use in SSB transmitters
and receivers.
SVCfilter — Standard-value component routine to design low-pass and high-pass filters and delivers
exact-values as well as nearest-5% values.
Tower — Analyzes vertical antennas. Plots resistance, reactance, and impedance at the base as a
function of frequency.
The Amateur’s Code
The Radio Amateur is:

CONSIDERATE…never knowingly operates in such a way as to lessen the pleasure of

others.

LOYAL…offers loyalty, encouragement and support to other amateurs, local clubs, and
the American Radio Relay League, through which Amateur Radio in the United States
is represented nationally and internationally.

PROGRESSIVE…with knowledge abreast of science, a well-built and efficient station

and operation above reproach.

FRIENDLY…slow and patient operating when requested; friendly advice and counsel
to the beginner; kindly assistance, cooperation and consideration for the interests of
others. These are the hallmarks of the amateur spirit.

BALANCED…radio is an avocation, never interfering with duties owed to family, job,

school or community.

PATRIOTIC…station and skill always ready for service to country and community.

—The original Amateur’s Code was written by Paul M. Segal, W9EEA, in 1928.
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