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i

F I T N E S S TO P L E A D
ii

OXFORD MONOGRAPHS ON CRIMINAL L AW AND JUSTICE

Series Editor
A N D R E W A S H WO RT H C B E Q C
Emeritus Vinerian Professor of English Law, All Souls College, Oxford

This series aims to cover all aspects of criminal law and procedure including
criminal evidence. The scope of this series is wide, encompassing both practical
and theoretical works.

ot h er t itles in t h is se ries
Criminal Justice and Taxation A Philosophy of Evidence Law
Peter Alldridge Justice in the Search for Truth
In Search of Criminal Responsibility Hock Lai Ho
Ideas, Interests, and Institutions The Criminal Justice System
Nicola Lacey and Healthcare
Character in the Criminal Trial Edited by Charles A. Erin and Suzanne Ost
Mike Redmayne Rethinking Imprisonment
Preventive Justice Richard Lippke
Andrew Ashworth and Lucia Zedner Killing in Self-​Defence
Homicide and the Politics of Law Reform Fiona Leverick
Jeremy Horder Delayed Prosecution for
The Insecurity State Childhood Sexual Abuse
Vulnerable Autonomy and the Right Penney Lewis
to Security in the Criminal Law Lying, Cheating, and Stealing
Peter Ramsay A Moral Theory of White Collar Crime
Manifest Madness Stuart P. Green
Mental Incapacity in the Criminal Law Defining Crimes
Arlie Loughnan The Special Part of Criminal Law
The Ethics of Plea Bargaining Edited by Anthony Duff and
Richard L. Lippke Stuart P. Green
Punishment and Freedom Criminal Responsibility
Alan Brudner Victor Tadros
Prosecuting Domestic Violence Proportionate Sentencing
A Philosophical Analysis Exploring the Principles
Michelle Madden Dempsey Andrew von Hirsch and Andrew Ashworth
Abuse of Process and Judicial Appraising Strict Liability
Stays of Criminal Proceedings Edited by Andrew Simester
Andrew L.-​T. Choo
iii

Fitness to Plead
International and Comparative Perspectives

Edited by
RO N N I E M A C K AY
WA R R E N B RO O K B A N K S

1
iv

1
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v

For Sally (M) and Glenys (B), whose love and support
continues to keep us both fit for purpose.
vi
vi

Foreword

Should we be glad or sorry that so few people are found ‘unfit to plead’ in a criminal
trial? We should certainly be surprised. In England, 7 per cent of people in contact
with the criminal justice system have a learning disability; 25 per cent of people in
prison have a learning disability; 25 per cent of women and 15 per cent of men in
prison reported symptoms indicative of psychosis; and growing numbers of older
people are sentenced to imprisonment, in part because of the growing number of
prosecutions for historic sex offences.1 These add up to many thousands of peo-
ple. Of course, not all people with a learning disability, or psychosis, or the mental
frailties of old age are unfit to plead. But it is a fair bet that there are more than the
roughly one hundred a year who are found unfit in England and Wales.
Before 1991, when the inevitable result of a finding that the defendant was unfit
to plead was indefinite detention for treatment in hospital, reluctance to raise the
issue was understandable. Even now, as Rudi Fortson points out from a practition-
er’s perspective, raising the issue may set in motion a train of events that were not
expected or desired. Some defendants may prefer to plead guilty to a lesser charge;
others may adamantly deny involvement in the offence rather than raise a mental
health issue; or a legal representative may make a tactical decision not to raise it
because in his view it is not in the defendant’s best interests to do so. An acquittal is
obviously preferable to a finding of unfitness, even now. When is counsel bound to
follow his client’s instructions in the matter?
Quite apart from practical and ethical considerations of this kind, the issue raises
profound questions of principle. On the one hand, how can it be fair, and consist-
ent with our notions of dignity and autonomy, to subject a person to the criminal
process who is not able to play a proper part in it? On the other hand, unless the
matter can be dealt with by diverting an obviously unfit person from the criminal
justice system, the public rightly expects that people accused of serious offences,
especially of a violent or sexual nature, should be brought to trial and, if guilty, dealt
with accordingly.
But what do we mean by being unfit? Should the test be limited to the ability to
understand what is going on in a criminal trial—​the well-​known Pritchard test as
explained by the trial judge in R v M (John)? Or should that be broadened to the
test adopted by the European Court of Human Rights, of ability to participate
effectively in the criminal process? And should the ability to participate effectively
encompass not only understanding but also decision-​making capacity? Under the
Mental Capacity Act 2005, in England, the test of capacity to make most decisions
involves not only the ability to understand the information relevant to making the
decision, and to retain it for long enough to do so, but also the ability to use or weigh
that information in order to make a choice. This is not the same as saying that the

1 Prison Reform Trust, Bromley Briefings Prison Factfile, Autumn 2017, pp 30, 44, 26.
vi

viii Foreword
choice made must be a rational one: rather, that the person must be able to make it.
Curiously, the distinction between the capacity to understand what is going on and
the capacity to make the decisions necessary to effective participation is not always
understood, as is illustrated by the discussion of Jersey law, which has adopted the
broader approach. Another relevant distinction, drawn by the Law Commission for
England and Wales, is between the capacity to take part in the trial and the capacity
to enter a plea of guilty.
Another issue of principle is whether capacity should be judged against the stand-
ards of a normal criminal trial, conducted along the adversarial lines traditional in
the Anglo-​American legal world, or whether it should be judged on the assumption
that every effort will be made during the trial to enable the defendant’s effective par-
ticipation in it? Great strides have been made in England in recent years in adapting
the trial process to meet the needs of vulnerable witnesses, in a conscious effort to
afford them as much protection from the criminal law as everyone else has. But those
efforts are only gradually being extended to vulnerable defendants. Yet it might be
thought that the best solution to the problem would be to adapt the criminal process
so far as possible to accommodate the needs of those with a limited ability to partici-
pate effectively. As Professor Dr van Kempen explains, in a civilian legal system such
as that in the Netherlands, the inquisitorial process puts more of a burden on the
judiciary and less of a burden on the accused and his lawyers. But under the influ-
ence of the European Convention on Human Rights (which is directly effective in
Dutch law) that process is becoming more adversarial and placing more of a burden
on the accused and his lawyers, thus raising a variety of questions about the ability
of the accused to play an effective part in it.
In principle, adapting the trial process so that the accused can play as effective a
part in it as possible is preferable to finding him unfit to plead and sending him off
to a mental hospital for an indefinite period. It is wrong in principle for the State to
deprive a person of his liberty because he is accused of having committed a criminal
offence without it being determined whether or not he has in fact done so. It is not
enough to say that he might have been compulsorily admitted to hospital anyway: in
many cases he would not otherwise have been thought suitable for long-​term mental
hospital admission. It is his alleged criminality which makes him so. But it is unjust
to subject him to that if he is not, in fact, a criminal. It is this thought that explains
the requirement in English law to have a ‘trial of the facts’ where a person is found
unfit to plead. But as the English chapters in this book make clear, this is not a com-
plete solution. There are many offences in which the factual ingredients are inextric­
ably bound up with the mental processes of the person accused.
There are yet further issues of principle if a person is found unfit and spends time
in hospital (or indeed some other place of confinement) before recovering enough
to be returned for trial. In what circumstances is it in the interests of justice to do
this—​or indeed to preserve the possibility of doing this, however remote, as has
sometimes been done in international criminal tribunals where there is an under-
standable reluctance to abandon the possibility of bringing the perpetrator of crimes
against humanity to justice no matter how incapacitated he may be.
ix

Foreword ix

This book brings together perspectives on these issues from England and Wales,
Jersey, Scotland, Canada, New Zealand, Australia, the United States of America, the
Netherlands, Italy, and international criminal tribunals from Nuremburg to East
Timor. The case histories from the international courts and tribunals are particu-
larly fascinating as they are grouped by mental condition, enabling us to see how
the various issues of practice and principle play out in the context of conditions
ranging from dementia, Alzheimer’s, and amnesia, through psychosis and cancer,
to post-​traumatic stress disorder. What do we think of people who can understand
the trial process, communicate with their lawyers and with the court, and make
rational choices, but who genuinely have no memory of the events in question?
Their lawyers are put in much the same position as a special advocate in a ‘closed
material procedure’ who has to test the evidence without being able to take his cli-
ent’s instruction on it.
These varied contributions examine the issues in depth and present a variety of
solutions. Although the numbers of cases are small, they raise profound questions
which can illuminate our thinking about the nature and purpose of our criminal
justice systems generally. The authors and the editors are to be congratulated for
doing so.
Brenda Hale
Supreme Court of the United Kingdom
x
xi

General Editor’s Preface

This volume presents a truly international study of the foundations, the limitations,
and the implications of the requirement of ‘fitness to plead’. It is widely accepted that
the criminal trial should, in substance, amount to calling the defendant to account
for her or his conduct as charged. This calling to account must take place according
to the right to a fair trial, and one of the elements of a fair trial is the defendant’s
ability to understand the criminal proceedings, to make decisions, and to instruct
legal representatives. The precise test of competence to stand trial is one of the major
issues discussed in the various chapters that follow, but it is certainly not the only
issue relating to fitness to plead. A further question concerns the implications of
finding that a particular defendant is unfit: is it clear that the court cannot proceed
to conviction? What protection should there be for the defendant, who might not
have done what has been charged? And what should happen if the mental condition
that led to the finding of unfitness changes, with the result that the defendant might
no longer lack the competence to stand trial? What protection should there be for
the public, if it is found that the defendant acted as charged? Should detention in a
mental hospital be inevitable, should it be indeterminate, or should an assessment
of proportionality to the offence charged be used to set a limit to any compulsory
detention? These and many other questions are analysed by an impressive array of
authors. The editors are explicit about their interest in producing improvements
to the law on fitness to plead, by exposing the problems and the benefits of the
legal regimes of a wide range of national and international jurisdictions. Given the
detailed analysis, the publication of this volume is likely to make an important con-
tribution to the cause of law reform in relation to fairness and the criminal process.
Andrew Ashworth
xi
xi

Preface

The impetus for this book came from our collaboration over a number of years
on matters relating to the criminal law, particularly defences. This resulted in an
ever increasing joint interest in fitness to plead, which we both considered had
been somewhat neglected in the legal literature. As a result, we thought it would
be useful to submit a book proposal on the topic that adopted a comparative and
international approach. This also led to us organizing an international conference
on ‘Fitness to Stand Trial’ held at the Auckland University of Technology in New
Zealand in October of 2017. This was a timely and constructive gathering which
acted as a forerunner to the book’s publication.
The book proposal was accepted by Oxford University Press and we are grateful
for the input of the referees, who considered our proposal, and to Professor Andrew
Ashworth for his helpful comments on an earlier draft. We are also very grateful to
all of the chapter contributors to this volume, who were outstanding in responding
to queries and in delivering their chapters on schedule. Finally, we are indebted
to Baroness Hale of Richmond, President of the Supreme Court of the United
Kingdom, for taking the time to write a splendid foreword to the book. In doing
so, Lady Hale expresses surprise ‘that so few people are found “unfit to plead” in a
criminal trial’. In addition, she closes her foreword with the remark that ‘Although
the numbers of cases are small, they raise profound questions which can illuminate
our thinking about the nature and purpose of our criminal justice systems generally’.
In our view, this epitomizes the fundamental nature of unfitness to plead and the
problems it presents. Certainly, as far as the law is concerned in many of the juris-
dictions discussed in this volume, the unfit to plead are both rarely encountered in
practice and are not adequately protected by the criminal process to which they are
subjected. In consequence, it is our view that the numbers of those adjudged unfit
to plead, together with the protections they are afforded by such a finding, will not
be increased unless and until the current law in most jurisdictions is updated and
modernized. It is our sincere hope that this book may help to stimulate debate about
this complex area of the criminal process and that unfitness to plead may no longer
be regarded as a rare finding that is best avoided.
Finally, this book’s dedication speaks for itself. Words cannot adequately convey
the debt which we owe to our two dedicatees.
RDM
WJB
May 2018
xvi
xv

Contents

Table of Cases xvii

Table of Legislation xxvii
List of Contributors xxxiii

1. Introduction 1
Ronnie Mackay and Warren Brookbanks
2. The Development of Unfitness to Plead in English Law 11
Ronnie Mackay
3. Unfitness to Plead in England and Wales: A Practitioner’s View of a Plea
in Evolution 33
Rudi Fortson
4. Reforming the Law of Unfitness to Plead in England and Wales:
A Recent History 55
Miranda Bevan and David Ormerod
5. Unfitness for Trial in Scots Law 81
Gerry Maher
6. Unfit to Stand Trial: Canadian Law and Practice 105
Gerry Ferguson
7. The Development of Unfitness to Stand Trial in New Zealand 127
Warren Brookbanks
8. Fitness to Stand Trial under Australian Law 153
Ian Freckelton
9. Fitness for Criminal Adjudication: The Emerging Significance of
Decisional Competence in the United States 175
Richard J Bonnie
10. Involuntary Competence in United States Criminal Law 207
Stephen J Morse
11. The Right to Fair Preliminary Investigation and Trial for Vulnerable
Defendants: The Case of the Netherlands 231
PHPHMC van Kempen
12. Competency to Stand Trial in Italy 255
Alberto Cadoppi and Mattia Celva
xvi

xvi Contents
13. Fitness to Stand Trial under International Criminal Law 273
Ian Freckelton and Magda Karagiannakis
14. Conclusion 299
Ronnie Mackay and Warren Brookbanks

Index 309
xvi

Table of Cases

AUSTRALIA
Agoston v The Queen [2008] NSWCCA 116. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
Berg v DPP [2014] QCA 281; [2015] QCA 196. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
CL (a minor) v Lee [2010] VSC 517. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
Clarkson v The Queen [2007] NSWCCA 70 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
DPP v Khoury [2014] NSWCA 15. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
Dupas v The Queen (2010) 2141 CLR 237. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
Eastman v DPP (ACT) (2003) 214 CLR 318. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
Eastman v The Queen [2000] HCA 29; (2000) 203 CLR 1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157, 159, 161
Egan, Hawkins and Burr v JG [2010] ACTSC 53. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
EK v The Queen [2010] NSWCCA 199. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
Heapes v The Queen [2000] TASSC 77 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
Heffernan v The Queen (2005) 194 FLR 370. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
Kesavarajah v The Queen [1994] HCA 41; (1994) 181 CLR 230 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155, 156, 159, 160
LN, Re [2000] VSC 159. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
Lunt v Police [2013] SASC 25 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
Major Reviews of Percy, Farrell and RJO, In the Matter of [1998] VSC 70. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
McDonald v The Queen [2016] VSCA 304 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
Ngatayi v The Queen (1980) 147 CLR 1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155–​7, 160
NOM v DPP [2012] VSCA 198. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165, 166
Parker v The Queen (1963) 111 CLR 610. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
Prothonotary of the Supreme Court of New South Wales v Yau Hang
Chan [2015] NSWSC 1177. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
R v Abdulla [2005] SASC 399 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155, 156
R v Aleer [2016] ACTSC 75. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
R v Ardler [2004] ACTCA 4; (2004) 144 A Crim R 552. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
R v Azar [2016] NSWSC 480. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
R v Blackman [2016] NSWSC 1579. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
R v Bradley (No 2) (1986) 85 FLR 111. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
R v Bridge [2005] NSWCCA 122. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
R v Crnobrnja [2016] NSWSC 1034. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
R v Dennison, unreported, New South Wales Court of Criminal Appeal, 3 March 1998. . . . . . . . 157
R v Draoui [2015] SASCFC 50. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .154
R v Dunne [2001] WASC 263 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
R v Enright [1990] 1 Qd R 563 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
R v Feili [2013] NSWSC 492. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
R v Gillard [2006] SASC 46. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157, 158
R v Grant [1975] WAR 163 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
R v Haines [2013] NSWSC 1609. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
R v Hayles [2017] SASC 182 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156, 158
R v House [1986] 2 Qd R 415 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
R v Khallouf [1981] VR 360. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159, 162
R v Krbavac [2013] NSWSC 313. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
R v Langley [2008] VSCA 81. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
R v Larizza [2004] SASC 360. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
R v Lee [2014] QCA 36. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
R v M [2002] QCA 464. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
xvi

xviii Table of Cases

R v Mailes (2001) 53 NSWLR 251. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
R v Mathews [2013] QCA 203. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
R v McKellar [2012] NSWSC 1567 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
R v McKitterick (2004) 36 SR (WA) 115 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
R v Miller (No 2) [2000] SASC 463. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156, 157
R v NCT [2009] VSCA 240. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
R v Ngatayi (1980) 147 CLR 1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
R v P (1991) 105 FLR 12. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
R v Peterson [2013] NSWSC 1002. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
R v Polanski [1999] NSWSC 433. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157, 158
R v Presser [1958] VR 45 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8, 141, 154–​6, 159, 173, 304
R v Rivkin (2004) 59 NSWLR 284. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156, 159
R v Steurer [2009] ACTSC 150 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159, 162
R v Stevens (2010) 107 SASR 456. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .157
R v T (2000) 109 A Crim R 559. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
R v Taylor [2014] SASCFC 112 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
R v Thomas [2014] NSWSC 1181. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
R v Wahlstedt (2003) 231 LSJS 140. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
R v Whittall [2016] NSWSC 691. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
R v Willie (1885) 7 QLJ (NC) 108. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
R v Wilson [2015] NSWSC 1538. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
R v Zvonaric [2001] NSWCCA 505. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
RDM v DPP [1999] 2 VR 270. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165, 166
Sinclair v The Queen (1946) 73 CLR 316. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159, 160
SKD, Re [2009] VSC 363. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .166
SM v The Queen [2013] VSCA 342. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
State of Western Australia v Tekle [2017] WASC 170 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156, 157
State of Western Australia v Tekle (No 2) [2017] WASC 351 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
Subramaniam v The Queen (2004) 79 ALJR 116 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
T, Re (2000) 109 A Crim R 559. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
Wills v The Queen (2007) 173 A Crim R 209. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156, 157

CANADA
R v Adam 2013 ONSC 373. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
R v Balliram (2003) 173 CCC (3d) 547 (Ont SCJ) 563 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
R v Brigham (1992) 79 CCC (3d) 365 (QCCA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
R v Budic (1977) 35 CCC (2d) 272 (Alta CA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108, 109
R v Conception 2014 SCC 60; [2014] 3 SCR 82 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
R v Conway 2010 SCC 22; [2010] 1 SCR. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
R v Demers 2004 SCC 46; [2004] 2 SCR 489. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
R v Gibbons (1946) 86 CCC 20 (Ont CA). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
R v Gorecki (1976) 14 OR (2d) 212 (CA). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108, 109
R v Hubach [1966] 4 CCC 114 (Alta CA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
R v Hughes (1978) 43 CCC (2d) 97 (Alta SC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
R v Hussein (2004) 191 CCC (3d) 113 (ONSC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
R v Jaser 2015 ONSC 4729 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
R v Jobb (2008) 239 CCC (3d) 24 (Sask CA). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
R v Kierstead (1918) 33 CCC 288 (NBKB) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
R v Le (2004) 187 CCC (3d) 283. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
R v Leys (1910) 17 CCC 198 (Ont CA). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
R v Lowry [1974] SCR 195 (SCC). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
R v M (RC) 2011 SKPC 61 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
xi

Table of Cases xix

R v Morrison 2016 SKQB 259. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
R v Morrissey (2007) 227 CCC (3d) 1 (Ont CA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
R v Proulx (2011) 273 CCC (3d) 367 (Sask PC). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
R v Roberts (1975) 24 CCC (2d) 539 (BCCA). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
R v Sabourin (2009) File No 03-​G30181 (Ont SCJ). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .105
R v Sewap (2008) 341 Sask R 31 (PC). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
R v Smith (1936) 65 CCC 231 (Sask CA). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
R v Steele (1991) 63 CCC (3d) 149 (QCCA). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108, 109
R v Ta [2002] OJ No 1453 (CA). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
R v Taylor (1992) 77 CCC (3d) 551 (Ont CA). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110–​12, 120, 157, 159
R v Whittle [1994] 2 SCR 914 (SCC). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
R v Woltucky (1952) 103 CCC 43 (Sask CA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108, 109
R v Xu [2007] OJ No 5796 (Ont CJ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112

ITALY
C Cost 25 May 1979, 23. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258, 259
C Cost 20 July 1992, 340. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
C Cost 28 June 1995, 281. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
C Cost 22 October 1996, 354. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
C Cost 26 January 2004, 39. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
C Cost 14 February 2013, 23. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265–​8
C Cost 25 March 2015, 45. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265–​9
C Cost (ord) 23 May 1991, 298. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
C Cost (ord) 4 February 2003, 33. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
C Cost (ord) 28 May 2004, 157. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
C Cost (ord) 29 March 2007, 112. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
C Cost (ord) 4 November 2011, 289. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
C Cost (ord) 21 October 2013, 243 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
Cass (1) 29 April 1993 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
Cass (1) 19 February 2004, 9676 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
Cass (4) 17 May 2005, 28559. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
Cass (1) 9 March 2007, 22749. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
Giud Pace Gaeta (ord) 17 March 2014. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
Trib Milano (1) (ord) 21 March 2013. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266

JERSEY
A-​G v O’Driscoll, 2003 JLR 390. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29, 95
R v Harding [2010] JLR 239; [2009] JRC198. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30, 31

NETHERL ANDS
Supreme Court 5 February 1980, ECLI:NL:HR:1980:AB7357, NJ 1980/​104
(Menten Case). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
Supreme Court 12 June 2001, ECLI:NL:HR:2001:AB2064, NJ 2001/​696. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .236
Supreme Court 11 April 2006, ECLI:NL:HR:2006:AU9130, NJ 2006/​393. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
Supreme Court 17 November 2009, ECLI:NL:HR:2009:BI2315, NJ 2010/​143 . . . . . 236, 247, 248
Supreme Court 20 November 2011, ECLI:NL:HR:2011:BT6406, NJ 2012/​29. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
Supreme Court 6 March 2012, ECLI:NL:HR:2012:BU3614, NJ 2012/​610. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
Supreme Court 16 November 2012, ECLI:NL:HR:2012:BX4280, NJ 2013/​109. . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
Supreme Court 19 February 2013, ECLI:NL:HR:2013:BY5321, NJ 2013/​308. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
Another Random Scribd Document
with Unrelated Content
 Agriculture - Student Handbook
Winter 2025 - Department

Prepared by: Teacher Smith

Date: August 12, 2025

Results 1: Practical applications and examples

Learning Objective 1: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Learning Objective 2: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Learning Objective 3: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 3: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Learning Objective 4: Research findings and conclusions
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Learning Objective 5: Ethical considerations and implications
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 7: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 8: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Important: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 9: Case studies and real-world applications
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Chapter 2: Research findings and conclusions
Practice Problem 10: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 11: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Research findings and conclusions
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Case studies and real-world applications
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 13: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Study tips and learning strategies
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice Problem 15: Research findings and conclusions
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice Problem 17: Practical applications and examples
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 18: Experimental procedures and results
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Section 3: Statistical analysis and interpretation
Key Concept: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Historical development and evolution
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Practice Problem 22: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Ethical considerations and implications
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Example 25: Experimental procedures and results
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Key Concept: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Lesson 4: Experimental procedures and results
Note: Practical applications and examples
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Literature review and discussion
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice Problem 32: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 33: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Note: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 35: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Important: Research findings and conclusions
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Research findings and conclusions
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Current trends and future directions
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 39: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Experimental procedures and results
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Background 5: Comparative analysis and synthesis
Definition: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Study tips and learning strategies
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 42: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 43: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 45: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Historical development and evolution
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Important: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 47: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 50: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Review 6: Critical analysis and evaluation
Example 50: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 52: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Key terms and definitions
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Key terms and definitions
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Study tips and learning strategies
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 55: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 56: Ethical considerations and implications
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Practical applications and examples
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Practice Problem 58: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Historical development and evolution
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Methodology 7: Research findings and conclusions
Note: Study tips and learning strategies
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Practical applications and examples
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 63: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 64: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 65: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice Problem 65: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Case studies and real-world applications
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
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