A.

Layer One

1. Describe how data is transmitted using Amplitude Modulation

In Amplitude Modulation (AM), data is transmitted by altering the amplitude of a high-

frequency carrier wave in line with the data signal. The carrier wave itself holds no

information, but its amplitude changes according to the data signal, which contains the

information. During transmission, the frequency of the carrier stays constant while the

amplitude adjusts to reflect the data, like how the loudness of a sound wave is represented.

This process allows the signal to carry information from the transmitter to the receiver.
2. In FM, data is transmitted by varying the frequency of the carrier signal. The

amplitude remains constant, but the frequency keeps changing in response

to the input data. A higher frequency can represent a '1', while a lower

frequency might represent a '0.' This is often used in audio broadcasting.

3. Make a table to describe environments that you would recommend for the

following type of Layer One media, and why that specific type is preferred:

a. Wireless WAN

b. Wireless LAN

c. CAT5 or CAT6 cable

 d. Single-mode Fiber-optic Cable

e. Multi-mode Fiber-optic cable.

Recommended
Media Type Why It Is Preferred
Environment

Mobile networks covering

Wireless WAN It is flexible in providing internet access over large area.
wide areas

Local area environments It is easy to deploy, cost effective, and offers support to
Wireless LAN
such offices and homes mobility within small areas.

CAT5/CAT6 It is reliable, cheap, and capable of supporting high-speed

Offices and data centres
Cable Ethernet connections.

Single-mode It supports high bandwidth over long distances. It good for

Long-distance
Fiber global for telecommunications.

Shorter distance where

Multi-mode
high-speed LAN Less cost than single mode for shorter distance
Fiber
environments are needed

D. Name and describe completely three functions of a traditional modem (NOT

a cable modem) used in a WAN.

i. Modulation-In order to transmit digital signals over conventional analogue

communication channels, the modem modulates digital signals into analogue signals.

The process of modulation entails encoding digital data onto an

analogue carrier signal so that it can travel over radio frequencies or phone lines.
 ii. Demodulation-For the receiving computer or device to comprehend the data, the

modem on the receiving end transforms the analogue signals back into digital form.

We refer to this procedure as demodulation.

iii. Error Detection and Correction: In the past, conventional modems utilized diverse

protocols like V.42 to oversee error detection and correction. These protocols were

essential in maintaining the integrity and precision of data transmitted over the

unpredictable and noisy analog phone lines. This process entailed identifying any

faulty data and retransmitting it when necessary.

Token Ring and Ethernet were the primary technologies for LANs until the

late early part of this century. Completely describe two pros and two cons for

each in a table.

LAN Pro Con

Ethernet 1. It is scalable and easy to expand 1. Prior to switching, there have been

instances of collisions.

2. Data transmission is so fast 2 As networks

expand, troubleshooting becomes more

complex.

Token Ring 1. The is no collision during network 1. It is slow when compared with data

access as it is deterministic. transmission in Ethernet

 2. It gives a predictable network 2.Costly to install and to maintain.

performance

E. Layer Two Controls and Error Techniques

Layer 2 of the OSI model is functions are data link control and error management. This layer

makes sure there is a reliable data transmission between devices over a physical medium.

The following explanations of the Access Control Methodologies, Error Prevention

Techniques, and Error Detection Methods used in this layer.

Access Control Methodologies:

1. CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection)-It is a method

widely used in Ethernet networks. Devices listen to the carrier signal before

attempting to transmit data. If the carrier is free, they send the data. If two devices

send data simultaneously, a collision occurs. The CSMA/CD algorithm detects this

collision and ensures that both devices stop sending data, wait for a random backoff

time, and then attempt to resend.

2. Token Passing-Networks using Token Rings frequently employ this technique. Data

can only be sent by the device holding the token, a unique kind of frame that travels

throughout the network. Only one device can send data at a time using this

technique, preventing collisions. Once the data is sent, the token is released for the

next device to use.

3. Polling-Polling represents a technique in which a manager interrogates each device

in succession to find out if it contains information to transmit. If there is data, it is

 transmitted; if not, the manager shifts focus to the following device. This method is

commonly employed in situations where systematic and dependable data

transmission is essential.

Error Prevention Techniques in Layer 2:

1. Flow Control: The sender won't overload the recipient with data all at once

thanks to flow control. The amount of data that can be sent before receiving an

acknowledgment from the recipient is controlled using strategies like sliding

windows. This guarantees that the data is processed effectively and stops buffer

overflow.

2. Framing: Using frames ensures data is encapsulated. It is simpler to identify and

isolate transmission errors when each frame contains error-

checking bits and addressing information. This allows Layer 2 to send manageable

chunks of data rather than one long continuous stream.

3. Collision Detection: It makes sure that when two devices attempt to send data at the

same time, the collision is identified and the devices back off before reattempting. By

doing this, the simultaneous transmission of data is prevented from causing

corrupted data.

Error Detection Methods in Layer 2:

1. Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)-CRC is a reliable technique for identifying errors.

Using polynomial division, a CRC value is computed from the data bits and appended

to the frame. The receiver performs the same calculation on the received data
 when the frame reaches it. An error is identified, and the frame is either discarded

or retransmitted if the computed value deviates from the CRC that is appended.

2. Parity Check- The inclusion of parity bits in a set of data bits ensures that the sum of

1s in the data remains either even or odd, depending on whether even parity or odd

parity is employed. By doing so, this method is capable of pinpointing isolated-bit

flaws but fails to deliver robust results for more complex multiple-bit errors.

3. Checksum-A checksum is a value obtained by summing up all the data bits within a

frame, in a manner like CRC. Like CRC, the checksum is included in the frame and is

recalculated by the receiver to detect errors. If the recalculated checksums do not

correspond, it suggests an error occurred during transmission.

Layer Data Unit

Layer Name Layer Functions Sample Protocol(s)
Number Name

7 Application It offers services to user applications directly. HTTP Data

Manages communications between applications SMTP

 and network processes. FTP

It compresses, translates, and encrypts data for

6 Presentation SSL, TLS Data
the application layer.

Session creates, controls, and ends the

5 Session NetBIOS, RPC Data
applications' communication sessions

Provides flow control, error recovery, and full data

4 Transport TCP, UDP Segment
transfer.

It chooses the most efficient physical route for IP, ICMP

3 Network Packet
data transmission ARP

Ethernet,
Coordinates error detection and correction as well
2 Data Link PPP Frame
as physical medium access
Frame Relay

It uses a physical media to transmit raw

USB
1 Physical bitstreams. Also, handles hardware parts such Bits
Ethernet
as switches, wires, and so forth.

F. Create an MS table for the OSI protocol stack listing: